Durham E-Theses The Social Structure and Organization of A Pakhto Speaking Community in Afghanistan. Evans-Von Krbek, Jerey Hewitt Pollitt How to cite: Evans-Von Krbek, Jerey Hewitt Pollitt (1977) The Social Structure and Organization of A Pakhto Speaking Community in Afghanistan., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1866/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF A PAKHTO SPEAKING COMMUNITY IN AFGHANISTAN Ph. D. Thesis, 1977 Jeffrey H. P. Evans-von Krbek Department of Anthropology University of Durham The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. ABSTRACT The Safi of Afghaniya, one of the tribal sections of the Safi Pakhtuns (Pathans) of Afghanistan, constitute the subject of study in the thesis. They number approximately 3,000 and occupy the lower part of the Pachoghan valley - one of the high mountain valleys of the eastern Hindu Kush. High summer temperatures and abundant water for irrigation make it possible for the inhabitants to pursue a two-crop, intensive agricultural economy. The majority of owner-cultivators can, however, only live at a subsistence level because of the high population density and land shortage in the valley. These two factors together with the increasing influence of the central government are fundamentally altering the Afghaniya Safi' s social structure and organization and bringing their identity as Pakhtuns into question. In the thesis this process of change is traced in a diachronic study start- ing with an outline of the Pakhtuns as a whole and with the Safi' s metamorphosis from what would seem to have been pagan Pashai/ Kohistani to muslim Pakhtuns. The thesis continues with a description of the economic and social conditions in Afghaniya and then deals with those elements of the social organization - descent, family and household relations, and marriage - which reveal most starkly the degree and extent of change per se and of the diminution of Pakhtun ideals and values. In the chapter on political organization, agnation, space and affinity are brought together as the factors primarily utilised by the members of the community for achieving group solidarity in the competition for resources. Finally, in the leadership chapter, they are also shown to play a part as some of those elements - together with traditional ideals and expectations and powers given them by the central government - which the leaders (maliks) manipulate to reduce autonomy and egalitarianism within the community and thereby to achieve a monopoly of power themselves. That these changes in the Afghaniya Safi' s social structure and organization have taken the form of a decline in the importance of the lineage organiza- tion and patriarchal authority (both essentials of the Pakhtun identity) and of a disregard and neglect of Pakhtun ideals and norms in general would seem to point to an inability of the Safi to maintain their identity as Pakhtuns. -2- In this latest Safi metamorphosis, however, it is still unclear what will result. It is possible because of the expanding powers of the central government in general that these Safi will not become non-Pakhtuns but will change that which is considered Pakhtun and so be the forerunners of change in Pakhtun society as a whole. 11 CONTENTS Maps and Diagrams p. vi PREFACE P. vii 1. INTRODUCTION p. 1 2. THE PAKHTUNS p. 10 Social and Cultural Forms/Diversity p. 11 Common Attributes p. 12 3. THE SAFI, A GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND p. 17 Present Area of Safi Settlement p. 17 Origin of the Safi - Hypotheses p. 20 General Conclusions p. 24 The Metamorphosis: Safi to Pakhtuns p. 27 4. THE OCCUPATION OF AFGHANIYA AND THE PROCESSES OF SETTLEMENT p. 35 Occupation p. 35 Processes of Settlement p. 46 The 'taxti' p. 46 The ' rahli' p. 48 The 'ajnabiyan' p. 49 5. PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SETTING p. 53 Social Setting p. 55 Local Government p. 62 6. SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES AND SOCIAL CATEGORIES p. 68 Subsistence Activities p. 68 Agricultural Activities p. 71 Distribution of Land and Water p. 71 Land p. 71 Water p. 72 River Water p. 72 Spring Water p. 74 iii v Crop System, Ploughing and Threshing p. 77 Share-cropping p. 82 Harvesting p. 85 Co-operative Work p. 86 Other Activities p. 88 Hunting p. 88 Seasonal Labour p. 92 Salesmen and Shopkeepers p. 95 KusubGar (carpenters, blacksmiths and barbers) and the Mullahs p. 101 Carpenters p. 103 Blacksmiths p. 105 Barbers p. 105 Mullahs p. 111 The imam p. 112 The Safi Mullahs p. 117 7. RELATIONS AND DESCENT - GENEALOGY AND LINEAGE p. 119 Genealogy and Lineage Structure p. 120 Elements and Content p. 120 Summary p. 130 Genealogy and Lineage Functions p. 131 Genealogy p. 131 Lineages p. 139 8. RELATIONS AND SPACE - FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD p. 144 The Elementary . Family/ Household p. 144 The Typical Family Form p. 146 The Household p. 148 The Division of Labour and Authority p. 152 Patrilineal The Extended Family Household p. 154 Paternal The Extended Family Household p. 155 The Division of Labour and Authority p. 155 Separatist Tendencies p. 156 The Fraternal Extended Family Household p. 159 iv Case Study p. 160 9. RELATIONS AND MARRIAGE - PROCEDURES, TRENDS AND FORMS p. 167 The Marriage Procedure p. 168 Marriage Preferences p. 169 Senior Males p. 169 Subjects of the Marriages p. 172 Statistical Material p. 175 Patterns and Trends p. 178 Explanations for Exogamous Marriage p. 197 Interests Pursued by Senior Males p. 201 ' xekhi' p. 203 'dosti' p. 204 Economic Interests p. 207 Monetary Gains p. 208 Marriage Procedure p. 215 Initial Steps p. 215 Marriage p. 219 Wedding and Transfer of the Bride to her Conjugal Home p. 219 'Freeing of the legs' p. 220 Alternative or Aberrant Forms of Marriage p. 220 Exchange Marriage p. 221 Marriage without the Consent of the walis p. 223 Dyadic Relations p. 227 Woman's xusarGani p. 230 Man's xusarGani p. 232 Conclusion p. 237 10. POLITICAL GROUPS AND CO1\EIPETITION FOR RESOURCES p. 238 Political Groups p. 239 The koranai p. 239 The pars p. 244 Mechanics of Amalgamation and Division p. 248 The Hamlet as the Limit of Political Solidarity p. 254 V Causes and Cases of Conflict p. 261 Methods of Acquiring Land p. 262 Inheritance p. 263 Purchase p. 268 Marriage p. 271 Force p. 272 11. LEADERSHIP - THE MALIK p. 277 The Malik - Origins and History p. 279 The Malik of Afghaniya p. 280 Necessary Characteristics or Requirements p. 280 Government Requirements and Standardisation p. 281 The Malik' s Duties p. 284 Expectations of the Local Government p. 285 Expectations of the Electors p. 290 Settlement of Disputes p. 290 Witnessing of Transactions p. 297 Representation p. 298 Sources of and Checks to the Malik" s Power p. 300 Present Checks to the Malik" s Power p. 303 Criticism p. 304 Ostracism p. 305 Loss of Followers p. 306 Motives and Rewards p. 307 Conclusion p. 309 12. CONCLUSION p. 311 Bibliography p. 316 typing - As a result of a error p. 243 is missing. - vi MAPS I Afghanistan P. 4 II Pakhtun Areas P. 4 III Safi Tribal Territory p. 18 IV The Pachoghan Valley and Neighbouring Valleys p. 37 V The Pachoghan Valley: Physical Setting p. 38 VI Afghaniya: Settlement p. 50 VII Afghaniya p. 54 VIII Relationship between gala_ Location and koranai Membership p. 136 IX The Relation between koranai Membership and Field and qala Location p. 242 DIAGRAMS , 1 The Pakhto Alphabet and Transliteration p. viii 2 Climatic Chart p. 56 3 Three Field Crop Rotation P. 78 4 Calendar of Agricultural Activities p. 80 5 Hunting Activities P. 89 6 Cycle of the Loss of Land and Migration p. 93 7 Safi Genealogy p. 121 8 Khels and Minor Lineages p. 125 9 Examples of koranai Groups p. 128 10 Community Ranking System p. 134 11 Family Composition p. 145 12 Household Composition p. 149 13 Relations in Space and Time: The Segmentation of Households p. 161 14 Circles of Marriage Choices p. 172 15 Totals and Averages for all ten Hamlets p. 176 16-25 Marriage Statistics of Hamlets p. 179- p. 188 26 Marriages between Afghaniya Hamlets (1) p. 189 27 Marriages between Afghaniya Hamlets (2) p. 190 28 ' plarGani' and related ' xpulwan' p. 231 29 A Woman's ' xusarGani' p. 231a 30 A Man's ' xusarGani' p. 233 31 Amalgamation and Division p. 251 32 Circles of Relationships p. 258 33 The Relationship of Actors in an Inheritance Dispute p. 267 34 The Acquisition of Land through Marriage p. 273 vii PREFACE The field work on which this thesis is based was carried out from August 1970 to September 1971 among the Safi Pakhtuns of Afghanistan. It was self-financed apart from an award from the Emslie Horniman Scholarship Fund (1969) of the Royal Anthropological Institute for which I am very grateful.