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You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. ‘Rock ova and lap up’: A critique of Caribbean theories of national identity through the Jamaican public transport system A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Sciences in Anthropology at The University of Waikato by SHARAYNE BENNETT Year of submission (2016) i ABSTRACT Public transport is a major aspect of the social and economic life of Jamaican people. With a population of 2.7 million and only 188 per thousand vehicles, many people have come to rely on public transport. Public travel within the Kingston Metropolitan Region (KMR) in Jamaica is possible via six modes which range from very informal to rigidly regulated. There is the Government owned and operated bus system (JUTC), then four modes (coasters, hackneys, minibuses, and route taxis) which are regulated by the government but operate across formal and informal lines and also the infamous Jamaican “robot” which exists outside of the regulatory framework and protection of the government. One journey may involve use of a single or multiple modes depending on various factors. This thesis an auto-ethnography of the Jamaican public transport system in the KMR as a landscape in which to critique the major theories of Jamaican/ Caribbean identity and determine whether or not they individually or collectively supply a true picture of our identity. By exploring issues of formality and informality, and morality in mobility this work resonates with traditional anthropology by integrating specific group experiences with larger political, historical and economic structures. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Albert Einstein said, “If we knew what we were doing we wouldn’t call it research.” This paper is certainly the result of research. I entered into this project blindly and had no idea what I was doing for most of it. However, others came alongside me, shared from their expertise, and helped me to research then compile the pages that follow. Some of these have made such a significant contribution to the process that I hasten to mention them by name; my supervisor Benedicta Rousseau, Andrei Bennett, and Graham and Gladys Billing. Additionally I have received tremendous support from friends associated with the Student Life organisation and my family. The help you have given me will not be soon forgotten. Thank you. iii CONTENTS Abstract ....................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .................................................................................... iii Contents ..................................................................................................... iv List of photographs ................................................................................... vii Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 The Jamaican Transport System (an introduction) ................................. 3 Origin of the system ................................................................................ 3 Forms now operating .............................................................................. 5 JUTC (chi-chi) bus .............................................................................. 6 The Route Taxi .................................................................................... 7 The Robot ............................................................................................ 8 Hackney............................................................................................. 10 The Minibus ...................................................................................... 11 Coaster............................................................................................... 12 Personnel Involved ................................................................................ 13 Methodology ............................................................................................. 17 Autoethnography ................................................................................... 17 Justification ........................................................................................... 18 Data Collection and Analysis ................................................................ 20 Limitations ............................................................................................ 21 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 23 Theories of Caribbean identity .................................................................. 24 Creolisation Theory ............................................................................... 24 Plantation Society Theory ..................................................................... 26 Plural Society ........................................................................................ 29 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 30 iv The Informal Economy ............................................................................. 32 Anthropology’s Interest in the Informal Economy ............................... 32 Definitions of Informal Economy ......................................................... 33 Dualist Definitions ............................................................................ 34 Marxist Definitions ........................................................................... 35 Social Relations Definitions .............................................................. 35 The Jamaican Informal Economy ......................................................... 36 Key Characteristics of the Informal Economy ...................................... 37 Social Relationship Aspects .............................................................. 38 Lack of Protection ............................................................................. 39 Interdependent with Formal Economy .............................................. 39 Highly Stigmatised ............................................................................ 40 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 42 The Informal Economy and Political Structures ................................... 43 The emergent informal economy emerges ........................................ 43 The socio-political system maintains the informal economy ............ 45 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 47 Everyday Experiences of Public Transport ............................................... 49 The JUTC .......................................................................................... 49 The Route Taxi .................................................................................. 52 The Robot .......................................................................................... 54 The Hackney ..................................................................................... 56 The Minibus ...................................................................................... 57 The Coaster ....................................................................................... 60 Additional factors to consider ............................................................... 62 Disgust versus attraction ................................................................... 62 Unprotected workers ......................................................................... 63 v Fatal transport.................................................................................... 63 Representation ................................................................................... 64 Mobility and Morality ............................................................................... 67 Movement in context............................................................................. 69 Landscape Mobility - State Legitimation .............................................. 71 Morality – Individual Choice ................................................................ 73 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 77 Formal and Informal Interdependence .................................................. 79 Group Association ................................................................................. 80 Western Domination ............................................................................. 82 The Agency of the Jamaican people in perpetuating informality