• Once hydrogen is exhausted in the inner part of the star, it is no longer a main What happens when sequence star. It continues to burn the sun runs out of hydrogen in a thick shell around the helium hydrogen in its center? core, and actually grows more luminous. Post-Main Sequence • Once the SC mass is exceeded, the Evolution – Low and contraction of the H-depleted core takes the hydrogen burning shell to H Intermediate greater depth and higher temperature. Mass Stars He it burns very vigorously with a luminosity set more by the properties of the helium core than the unburned “envelope” of the star. The shell becomes thin in response to a reduced pressure scale height at the Pols 10, 11 core’s edge because of its high gravity. L Prialnik 9 Glatzmaier and Krumholz 16 • The evolution differs for stars below about 2 solar masses and above. The helium core becomes degenerate as T ← it contracts for the lower mass stars • H shell burning is by the CNO cycle and What happens when therefore very temperature sensitive. the sun runs out of hydrogen in its center? • In stars lighter than the sun where a large fraction of the outer mass was already convective on the main sequence, the increased luminosity is transported quickly to the surface and the stars luminosity rises at nearly H constant photospheric temperature He (i.e., the star is already on the Hayashi strip) • For more massive stars, the surface The “hooks” just to the right of the MS remains radiative for a time and the mark the transition luminosity continues to be set by the L from central H mass of the star (i.e., is constant). The burning to shell increased power from the H shell drives burning (Pols 9.3) expansion. The star moves to larger radii (lower T) at nearly constant L, until it T ← reaches the Hayashi strip Pols Fig 10.5 What happens when the sun runs out of • All stars eventually converge on the hydrogen in its center? Hayashi strip and have an effective AGB star temperature ~ 4000 K • The time spent by the massive stars expanding is short – the Kelvin-Helmholtz H envelope time scale for the envelope, hence there H are few stars in the region where they = central H depletion He are evolving at constant L. This is called the “Hertzsprung gap” A H shell burn = He flash, HB • Massive stars cross the Cepheid instability strip on the way to becoming He core red giants, but spend too short a time He burn L there to explain the numbers that are observed. The history of the sun (typical of M < 2). Red is energy generation. Dark is > 5 L / M pink is > 1 L / M . Grey indicates ←T convective regions. Letters correspond to points on the HR diagram on the following page. Core Luminosity Relation (for low mass stars that develop a degenerate He core) (Paczynski (1970); Tuchman et al (1983)) Fig 10.5 Pols 3.7 = 5000 K 3.6 = 4000 K Because of the steep density gradient just outside the 3.5 = 3000 K helium core, the conditions in the hydrogen burning shell depend sensitively upon the properties of the degenerate helium core upon which it rests. The more massive the core, the smaller its radius and stronger its gravitational potential. This makes the temperature in HE higher which gives a greater luminosity by the CNO cycle. Empirically, from models, and later analytically. 6 Between points B and C the helium core becomes degenerate and hydrogen ⎛ M ⎞ burns in a thinner shell. Point D is when the surface convection zone is its L ≈ 2.3 ×105 c erg s−1 ⎜ M ⎟ deepest. Products of the CNO cycle are mixed to the surface. At E the H ⎝ ⎠ shell reaches the mass where the deepest convection (D) extended and there is a small change in L (see Fig 10.6 Pols). At F, helium ignites with a flash. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983ApJ...268..356T The helium core mass then is 0.45 Msun. Hydrogen depletion 1 M 5 M As the helium core mass grows due to shell H burning adding ash, the luminosity goes up. Starting from about 0.1 M for the sun and growing to 0.45 M , the luminosty climbs from roughly L to 2000 L at the time of the helium core flash. Because the larger luminosity means more hydrogen is being added to the core per unit time, the evolution accelerates at the end. mass fraction M = 0.1 means 0.5 M r Pols page 137 Fig 10.2 Pols 5 M star • Point C is central H exhaustion Exhausted core has not yet reached the SC mass at C so the stage of thick H shell burning (CD) is relatively long, but most of it occurs near the main sequence. log Te > 4.0. The transition to a red giant is quite fast • At D, the envelope becomes fully convective and L rises • At E helium ignites non- degenerately in the center • .During FGH the star exhibits a “blue loop”, spending part at B, XH = 3% of that time as a Cepheid horizontal Fig 10.3 Pols branch Helium flash in stars below 2 solar masses Radiation Helium burning in stars below 2 solar masses develop degenerate helium cores and evolve differently from heavier stars. Ideal • The stars all ignite helium burning with essentially the same mass – 0.45 – 0.50 solar masses. The core structure of all such stars is thus similar and that is why there is a horizontal branch of near constant luminosity Degenerate • Helium ignites degenerately. In the sun, for example, helium burning ignites at a temperature of about 1 x 108 K and a density about 106 g cm-3. The pressure for this condition is given chiefly by degenerate electrons and the ignition leads to a brief thermonuclear runaway At maximum the energy generation from helium burning during the flash reaches about 1010 solar luminosities, equivalent to a small galaxy. But very little helium burns before expansion puts out the runaway after only a few minutes (a factor of a few urface times the sound crossing time for the helium core). This large luminosity does not arrive at the surface but instead goes into expanding both the helium core and the envelope outside it. The hydrogen shell goes out. The helium core evolves on its Kelvin-Helmholtz time and may undergo several more weaker flashes before finally settling down to burn helium stably. For the sun this takes a fairly brief Pols 10.7 – helium core flash in a star of about 1 solar mass time, ~ 1.5 My. Pols Fig 10.5 AGB star H envelope = central H depletion A H shell burn = He flash, HB He core He burn The history of the sun (typical of M < 2). Red is energy generation. Dark is > 5 L / M pink is > 1 L / M . Grey indicates convective regions. Letters correspond to points on the HR diagram on the following page. Mass loss Mass loss Because of their high luminosity and weak surface gravity, red giants, and especially AGB stars (which It is thought that the sun will lose roughly 0.3 have very large radii) lose a lot of mass to winds. A solar masses by the time it finishes helium burning. rough approximation to the mass loss is given by the Reimer’s (empirical) relation Since grains require heavy elements to form and L R M since much of the momentum deposition involves M ≈ − 4 ×10−13 η M y −1 Pols p 150 L R M interactions with heavy elements, especially iron, stars with lower metallicity have smaller mass loss η ~ 1 rates than stars with solar metallicity. Many other, more complicated expressions exist. Low metal stars or all sorts may eventually die then The mass loss occurs because of the momentum with masses larger than their modern day counterparts. deposited by the outgoing light in the atoms near the star’s surface that absorb it. In red giants, grains may Except for very massive stars, most mass loss occurs also form and be pushed out by the light. during the red giant phase. “Blue Loops” (during helium core burning) The “hooks” just to the right of the MS mark the transition from central H burning to shell burning (Pols 9.3) Horizontal Branch Stars A) Red giant formation. The helium core evolves ρ ∝T 3 Only stars below 2 Msun make HB stars c c as if it were a star of reduced mass. T ∝ M 2/3 ρ1/3 C c c B B) Helium ignition. A ` new source of energy generation s found that is highly centrally A concentrated due to the high temperature sensitivity of the 3-alpha reaction. The core becomes convective and the polytropic index decreases. Lifetime on the HB is roughly constant at 120 My due to the nearly constant He core size, 0.45 - 0.50 MO. C) Helium burning over. The H-shell also contributes to the luminosity though, especially Kelvin-Helmholtz when the envelope mass is large. The He flash was not contraction. Onset of included in these calculations. These calculations start at what was degeneracy. point “G” in the other figures. Horizontal Branch Stars Globular Cluster M5 http://www.dur.ac.uk/ian.smail/gcCm/gcCm_intro.html • For solitary solar metallicity stars, there is a pile up on the right hand side of the HB called the “red clump”. This is because all such stars have substantial H envelopes relative to their 0.45 solar mass helium cores • Stars to the left (blue) on the HB generally have smaller envelope masses, i.e., the helium core is a larger fraction of the star’s mass.