Mindfulness (2019) 10:272–278 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0971-7 ORIGINAL PAPER Roles of Anger and Rumination in the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Forgiveness Qinglu Wu1 & Peilian Chi2 & Xianglong Zeng3 & Xiuyun Lin4 & Hongfei Du5,6 Published online: 23 June 2018 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018 Abstract Self-compassion can improve mental health and enable individuals to develop aspects of prosocial motivation such as forgiveness. Self-compassion is associated with forgiveness; however, cognitive and emotional mechanisms underlying this association remain underexplored. Based on Worthington’s stress-and-coping theory of forgiveness, we examined the roles of rumination and anger—two typical psychological responses to interpersonal transgressions—in the relationship between self-compassion and forgiveness. By analyzing a sample of 358 Chinese college students (132 male students, mean age = 19.18 years), we determined that self-compassion and forgiveness were negatively associated with anger and rumination. Structural equation modeling results revealed that self-compassion was associated with forgiveness directly and indirectly through decreased anger and rumination. Furthermore, rumination was associated with forgiveness indi- rectly through anger. These findings indicate that anger is a proximal predictor of forgiveness. The results of the present study suggest that increasing self-compassion, reducing rumination, and alleviating anger are substantial and interventive processes for cultivating forgiveness. Keywords Self-compassion . Anger . Rumination . Forgiveness Introduction the human experience, and embracing one’s own mind and feelings without judgment or avoidance (Fresnics and Borders Self-compassion is a construct that has attracted considerable 2017;Neff2003). Self-compassion is associated with a set of attention from psychologists over the past decade. Self- positive psychological constructs (e.g., self-esteem, self-deter- compassion is defined as a disposition for being with one’s mination, self-acceptance, and interpersonal trust) and in- own suffering, including being kind toward oneself, accepting versely associated with negative psychological constructs that suffering and negative experiences are a part of life and (e.g., anxiety, depression, and rumination) (Neff 2003; Qiu et al. 2017). Furthermore, self-compassion may be related to individual adaptive responses to life adversities including en- * Peilian Chi vironmental hardships and interpersonal challenges (Neff [email protected] 2003;NeffandPommier2013). Some empirical studies have consistently demonstrated that 1 Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Faculty of self-compassion is significantly associated with the tendency to Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, R712, 7/F, The forgive (Neff and Pommier 2013; Zhang and Chen 2016), which Jockey Club Tower, Pok Fu Lam Road, Hong Kong 999077, China is a prosocial and adaptive response to environmental and inter- 2 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of personal transgressions. People with high levels of self- Macau, Macau 999078, China compassion are more likely to exhibit kindness toward them- 3 School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China selves, understand transgressions as an inevitable aspect of the 4 Institute of Developmental Psychology, School of Psychology, human experience, and accept suffering caused by transgres- Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China sions. Thus, such people tend to be more forgiving toward others. 5 Department of Psychology, Guangzhou University, However, the underlying cognitive and emotional processes that Guangzhou, China explain how self-compassion is linked to forgiveness remain 6 Social and Health Psychology Research Center, Guangzhou unknown. Stress-and-coping theory of forgiveness has suggested University, Guangzhou, China Mindfulness (2019) 10:272–278 273 reductions in rumination and anger as crucial cognitive and emo- 2013). In mindfulness-based stress reduction and self- tional processes that predict forgiveness (Worthington 2006). compassion intervention studies, self-compassion has been Forgiveness is defined as a motivational transformation of found to be inversely associated with rumination and anger victims toward offenders, including reductions in negative (Robins et al. 2012;Smeetsetal.2014). emotions, thoughts, and behaviors toward offenders and in- Regarding the direction from rumination to anger, various creases in positive emotions, thoughts, and behaviors where perspectives have been offered. Most empirical studies have possible (Enright 1996;McCulloughetal.1998;Ripleyand reported that rumination is indirectly associated with forgive- Worthington 2002). Forgiveness is positively related to mental ness through anger (Bushman 2002; Ray et al. 2008). health (e.g., reductions in depression, anxiety, and hostility) and However, a few studies have reported contrary findings, dem- wellbeing (Miller and Worthington 2010; Worthington 2006). onstrating that anger enhances an individual’s level of rumi- Individuals with high levels of forgiveness are less likely to feel nation, particularly anger rumination, which is one type of depressed or anxious. Moreover, forgiveness not only benefits rumination that emerges during or after an experience of anger individuals but also helps people to handle conflict and main- (Besharat et al. 2013; Besharat and Pourbohlool 2012). Thus, tain relationships (Kachadourian et al. 2004; Wieselquist 2009). in this study, we (1) examined the cognitive pathway (through People with a high tendency to forgive others in daily life are decreased rumination) and emotional pathway (through de- more likely to empathize with others, express kindness, and creased anger) in the association between self-compassion realize the common imperfections of human beings (for and forgiveness; (2) explored what the proximate factor is review, see Fincham et al. 2006; Paleari et al. 2005). In marital for explaining tendencies for forgiveness through testing com- relationships, forgiveness toward a spouse is positively associ- petitive hypotheses regarding indirect effects, namely self- ated with both the individual and his or her spouse’s level of compassion → rumination → anger → forgiveness and self- marital satisfaction (David and Stafford 2015). compassion → anger → rumination → forgiveness. Self-compassion is generally related to prosocial responses (e.g., empathetic concern, perspective-taking, and altruism) (Neff and Pommier 2013; Zhang and Chen 2016). It has been Method shown to be associated with both of self-compassion and for- giveness (Neff and Pommier 2013; Zhang and Chen 2016). Participants People with higher levels of self-compassion are more likely to forgive those who have offended them, regardless of wheth- Study data were obtained from a research project investigating er the offender critically or compassionately evaluates him or the influence of childhood maltreatment on adulthood rela- herself after the transgressions (Allen et al. 2015). Self- tionship quality. Students at the University of Macau, all aged compassion is significantly associated with forgiveness to- 18 years or older and able to read Chinese, were potential ward others across populations (Neff and Pommier 2013). participants for this study. Eventually, 413 undergraduate stu- However, the mechanism underlying the relationship be- dents of the university participated by completing an issued tween self-compassion and forgiveness toward others should questionnaire. We excluded participants who were younger be investigated. According to the stress and coping theory of than 18 years; could not understand Chinese; or provided forgiveness, transgressions may be interpersonal stressors that duplicated responses (submissions made using a single partic- force victims to perceive a sense of injustice that might leave ipant ID twice or more), incomplete responses, or complete them feeling further threatened because of their suffering and responses within 5 min (Antonelli et al. 2014; Zhou et al. loss (Worthington 2006). The feeling of being threatened can 2013). Ultimately, 358 participants were included, comprising lead to rumination and anger. When victims ruminate over 132 male students and 226 female students, all aged 18– hurtful events, they re-experience and immerse themselves 34 years (mean = 19.18; standard deviation = 1.46). in associated negative thoughts and adverse emotions, and this renders them less likely to forgive. In cross-sectional and lon- Procedure gitudinal studies, rumination and anger have been negatively associated with forgiveness (Fatfouta et al. 2015; Lucas et al. An online questionnaire was administered. Before responding 2010; McCullough et al. 2007). to the questionnaire, an embedded informed consent form People with higher levels of self-compassion have been with general information regarding the project was provided observed as less likely to exhibit anger or aggression and less to all participating students. The students were informed of the ruminative in daily life (Fresnics and Borders 2017;Svendsen purpose, procedure, potential risks, confidentiality concerns, et al. 2016). Self-compassion enables people to understand and compensation method of the project, as well as their right their suffering from a broad and transcending perspective; this to withdraw from the project and the researchers’ contact in- enables people