Transactional Analysis: An Elegant Theory and Practice By Claude Steiner 2003 Transactional analysis can serve as a The idea of three egos states and the sophisticated, elegant, and effective system on transactional interactions between them are which to base the practical activities of the most distinctive feature of transactional professionals in psychotherapy, counseling, analysis and yet have the least amount of education, and organizational consultation. It resonance in the literature. However, the was founded in the 1950s by San Francisco utility of this concept is the principal reason psychiatrist Eric Berne, MD. Transactional why people become interested and maintain analysis has become a worldwide movement their interest in transactional analysis. with upwards of 10,000 adherents. It is a 5. The Transactional Analysis Theory of sophisticated theory of personality, motivation, Change Cluster. Transactional analysis is and problem solving that can be of great use to essentially a cognitive-behavioral theory of psychotherapists, counselors, educators, and personality and change that nevertheless business consultants. retains an interest in the psychodynamic Transactional analysis can be divided into five aspect of the personality. theoretical and practical conceptual clusters. Echoes of each of these clusters of concepts These five clusters enjoy varying degrees of can be found in writings in the fields of recognition within the behavioral sciences. They psychology, social psychology, and are listed below along with (between quotes) psychotherapy, where they exist independent of concepts that parallel them in the behavioral any awareness of their possible transactional sciences. analysis origins. Transactional analysis includes 1. The Strokes Cluster. This cluster finds all five in a sophisticated, interconnected theory correlates in existing theories of of personality and change. From the social "attachment," "intimacy," "warmth," "tender sciences literature, we have collected a portfolio loving care," "need to belong," "contact," of method, theory, and research that "closeness," "relationships," "social support," corroborates each of the five theoretical clusters. and "love." This portfolio is summarized in the following sections. 2. The OK Cluster. This cluster finds correlates in existing theories of "positive psychology," The Stroke Cluster "flow," "human potential," "resiliency," Berne postulated that recognition is a basic, "excellence," "optimism," "subjective well- biological need with profound motivational being," "positive self-concept," "spontaneous implications. He called the unit of interpersonal healing," "nature's helping hand," "vis recognition a "stroke." Contact and recognition medicatrix naturae" (the healing power of with and from others is an essential part of nature), and "the healing power of the mind." human relationships. 3. The Script and Games Cluster. This cluster A stroke has been defined as a unit of contact or finds correlates in existing theories of recognition. Contact or strokes are essential to a "narratives," "maladaptive schemas," "self- person's life. Without them, Berne said, "the narratives," "story schemas," "story spinal cord will shrivel up." This classic Bernean grammars," "personal myths," "personal aphorism refers to research that demonstrates event memories," "self-defining memories," that a very young child needs actual physical "nuclear scenes," "gendered narratives," strokes to survive and that early development of "narrative coherence," "narrative complexity," the human brain is greatly affected by the kinds "core self-beliefs," and "self-concept." of contact that the child receives (Siegel, 1999). 4. The Ego States and Transactions Cluster. People of all ages require adequate levels of 1 © 2014 International Transactional Analysis Association Transactional Analysis: An Elegant Theory and Practice 2 By Claude Steiner contact. The exchange of strokes is one of the Berne proposed that not only positive stimulation most important activities in which people engage but also negative painful stimulation might be in their daily lives. instrumental in maintaining health. This hypothesis is essential to the theory of games, Berne based his theory on Spitz's (1945) which postulates that people will accept and hospitalism studies and Harlow's (Suomi, seek negative stimulation even if they prefer Collins, Harlow, & Ruppenthal, 1976) "monkey positive stimulation. Berne quoted Levine's studies" with wire and cloth mothers. Spitz (1960) research on infant stimulation in support established that in a foundling home where the of that view. children were deprived of maternal care and affection, motor and intellectual types of The OK Cluster development were markedly depressed, mortality was high, and physical growth was In the process of developing an identity, people retarded. Harlow also showed that baby define for themselves, early in life, what the monkeys clearly preferred cuddling with the meaning and significance of their life is. Some softer cloth "mother" model, especially if they people see life as a basically benign and were scared. Harlow found that young monkeys positive experience and themselves as basically reared with live mothers and young peers acceptable. Berne called this positive learned without difficulty to play and socialize experience of self "being OK." Others decide with other young monkeys. Babies raised with they are not acceptable (not OK) as human real mothers but no playmates were often fearful beings and that they will fail in some way. These or inappropriately aggressive. Baby monkeys expectations, based on a decision about how life without playmates or real mothers became will be, become a person's existential position. socially incompetent and, when older, were People can feel accepting or not accepting often unsuccessful at mating; those that did about themselves and others (OK or not OK). have babies were neglectful of them. Harlow This leads to four main existential positions: "I'm concluded that normal sexual and parental OK, You're OK"; "I'm OK, You're Not OK"; "I'm behavior depended on a wide array of affection Not OK, You're OK"; and "I'm Not OK, You're ties with peers and family early in life. Not OK." As mentioned earlier, the concepts that we, in The concept referred to in transactional analysis transactional analysis, refer to as strokes have as the "OK existential position" is represented in been written about and studied as "contact," the wider behavioral culture by the concepts of "attachment," "intimacy," "warmth," "tender "positive psychology," "flow," "human potential," loving care," "need to belong," "closeness," "resiliency," "excellence," "optimism," "subjective "relationships," "social support," and "love." well-being," "positive self-concept," "spontaneous healing," "nature's helping hand," That the procurement of strokes-the "need to "vis medicatrix naturae" (the healing power of belong"-is a fundamental human motivation has nature), and "the healing power of the mind." been investigated by Baumeister and Leary These concepts, until recently deemed (1995) in an excellent and exhaustive review of unfashionable and "soft-headed," have taken the literature. They concluded that "existing center stage in psychological research. evidence supports the hypothesis that the need Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) reviewed to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and the field in a special issue of the American extremely pervasive motivation" (p. 52). That Psychologist focused on positive psychology. nurturing physical strokes are needed to maintain physical and psychological health has In transactional analysis, the OK existential been investigated in innumerable research position is also referred to as "the universal studies. Excellent reviews of these studies, position" because Berne assumed that "people showing the pervasive relationship between are born OK"; that is, people have an innate stroking and health, are provided by Lynch and tendency toward health, healing, and a benign Ford (1977) and Ornish (1998). These concepts expectation and trust of others. This position are also embedded in the all-important series of about self and others is either maintained or lost attachment studies by Bowlby (1969) and to a not-OK position about self, others, or both. Ainsworth (1982), which also support the view Hundreds of studies (for an excellent review, that secure reliable contact with a caretaker is see Matlin & Stang, 1978) have shown that essential for positive development. human beings strongly tend to be selectively © 2014 International Transactional Analysis Association Transactional Analysis: An Elegant Theory and Practice 3 By Claude Steiner positive in their language, thought, and memory Berne either contributed to or anticipated major and that people who are psychologically healthy trends in behavioral science can be seen in the show a higher level of positive bias. The evolution of the concept of scripts. McAdams, research also indicates that people with an OK- Reynolds, Lewis, Patten, and Bowman's (2001) OK attitude are likely to be healthier and live thorough review of the literature on the longer. In fact, Tiger (1979) postulated that psychology of "life stories" contains about 200 optimism has driven human evolution and is an references, the majority of which were written innate adaptive characteristic of the species, a well after Berne's introduction of the concept in part of evolutionarily developed survival 1965.