1 PREFACE Funda mental ecology is abranch of science aimed at developing mathematical models that could forecast the impact of technogeneous process on the natural environment.the present edition illustrates the methodes and models of fundamental ecology takeing the outer space contamination problem as an example . Since the first sputnik was launched on 4octomber 1957 and the space era begun mankind was enthusiastic about putting satellite into orbit ,of the wonderful opppurtunities given by the space achievements foe telecommunications,navigations,Earth observations ,weather forecasts.microgravity science and technology,etc. nobody gave thought to a possible negative impact on the space environment,Now it is high time we step aside and look around. Space activity of mankind generated great deal of orbital debries ,i.e. manmade objects ane their fragments launched into space ,inactive nowadays and not serving any useful purpose. Those objects ,ranging from micron up to decimeters in size,traveling at orbital velocities,remaining in orbot at many years and numbering billions fromed a new media named space debries and become a serious hazard of space flights.collision with metallic particles of debries with 1 centimeter is energeitically equvivalent to a collision with car moving at a speed of 100 km per hour. Thus this media where in the space satellites operate nowadays should be taken into account ,and its impact on the durability on space missions should be evaluated as it will be affect the reliability of technical systems.That turns out to be of fabulous significance foe upward schemes surrounding constellations of law earth orbiting satellites as a space segment . The prospective ‘sky bridge system’, a satellite based broadband access the system which will provide high rate internet way in,videoconferesing as well as extra check is supposed to be based on 64 law earth orbit satellites.Developing the ideas of such organizations it is essential to acquire into considerations the space debries environment the system will operate in. ( Now the chosen altitude for the sky bridge constellation is 1457 km which practically coinsides with the second greatest of the orbital debries populatios. Space debries has been studied by leading scientific and research institutions of all the space power since ‘80s, and its implications has been discussed among the narrow circule of experts of worldwide conferences plus mettings of space agencies from the ‘90s.but now the emerging constellations of law earth orbiting communication satellites or system providing interactive broadband services and the forthcoming constraction of global space station brought the attention of a wide spectrum of specialists space debries trouble. 2 The aims of represent eddition are : To commence the problem of space debries toa wide circule of people who are consumers of space operating systems; To give a decription of the existing level of space contamination plus forecast for prospect development of the orbital debries populations; To provide brief coverage of activities on space debries problems that have been in taken and continuing ; To highlight the aspect of affecting the growth of space debries poplution in law earth orbits and geosynchronous orbits; To present the modern methods of orbital debries evolution modelling ,investigation along with impact hazard assesments ; To explain the major hazards for opening space systems and possible preventive measures; To converse mitigration strategies ; The contributors to the book well-known specialists in field of orbital debries learn from Europe,Japan Russia and USA, who have been in this business for many years . most of them experience both working research corporations or space agencies and being professors in universities.they were among the first join the space debries communities,their pioneer publications on the issues are well known. The book addressed the wide spectrum of readers. An unfamiliar readers find new concept introducing the problem space ecology, new data and examples. A specialists will find actual data on space debries environment.new mathematical models for evolutions ,production and self-production, explanation of the surviveing software ,conception for shield design. A person involving develpoing concept foe multifunctional constellations of law earth orbit satellites will find methods of collison risks assesments depending on altitude and inclinations of orbit,impact risks and evalutations and proposals concerning preventive measures.The book will be suitable as a primary (supplemtary) text for college courses and in-service training programs. PRICE : 2 Dollar 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all I pay all my homage and designate my emotions to the lord Shiva whose blessings promote me to accomplish this interesting task. This task requires efforts from many people without them it would not have been completed. I bow my head in utter humility and complete dedication. It is with great pleasure and with deep sense of gratitude, to my esteemed Father Dr. Madhubhai D. Baria, who has inspired me with keen interest and ever vigilant guidance without which this task could not have been achieved. He has not only guided me but also acted as co-traveler throughout my work. It is the result of his unfailing efforts and meticulous training that today I have reached my destination. The only way to thank his would perhaps to strive to work similarly in years ahead, and continue to chain in succession. First and foremost, I wish to take this privilege to place on record in a very special and distinctive manner, an expression of deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my mother Smt. Dhanuben M. Baria, for her ever inspiring guidance, constant encouragements, friendly support and simplicity has enabled me to complete this work. I am thus highly obliged by her kind support and noble virtues, which will be always cherished by me. I am extremely grateful to my sister Pareshkumari M. Baria, Associate professor, Government Engineering College, Dahod. For suggesting in work and valuable guidance, stimulates discussion, support and immeasurable help this work till its completion. 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMERY : Space pollution refers to the gathering debris in orbit around the Earth, made up of discarded rocket boosters, In the most general sense, the term space pollution includes both the natural micrometeoroid and man-made orbital debris constituents of the space atmosphere; conversely, as "pollution" is generally considered to indicate a despoiling of the usual environment, space contamination here submits to only man- made orbital debris. Orbital debris poses a hazard to both manned plus unmanned spaceship as well as the earth's inhabitants. The number, nature, and location of objects superior than 10 cm in size are afforded in the fragmentation debris table and in the image of space debris approximately Earth. Low Earth orbit (LEO) is defined as orbital altitudes below 2,000 km above the earth's surface and is the topic of the representation of space debris just about Earth. Middle Earth orbit (MEO) is the province of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in addition to Russian navigation satellite systems with is located at approximately 20,000-km altitude, whereas the geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) "belt" is occupid primarily by communications and Earth—observation payloads about 35,800 km. The mass of objects in these orbital regions are in circular or near-circular orbits about the earth. In dissimilarity, the elliptical orbit class contains rocket bodies left in their transfer (payload delivery) orbits to MEO as well as GEO with scientific, communications, and Earth- observation payloads. Of all objects listed in the Debris is typically divided into three size ranges, based on the damage it may cause: less than 1 centimeter (cm), 1 to 10 cm, along with superior than 10 cm. Objects less than 1 cm may be shielded against, but they still have the potential to harm the majority satellites. Debris in the 1 to 10 cm range is not shielded against, cannot easily be observed, and could demolish a satellite. lastly, impacts with objects larger than 10 cm can break up a satellite. Of these size ranges, simply objects 10 cm and superior are frequently followed and cataloged by surveillance networks in the United States and the previous Soviet Union. The further populations are estimated statistically through the analysis of returned surfaces (sizes less than 1 mm) or particular measurement campaigns with sensitive radars (sizes larger than 3 mm). Estimates for the populations are just about 30 million debris between 1 mm and 1 cm, over 100,000 debris between 1 and 10 cm, and 8,800 objects larger than 10 cm. 5 INDEX PREFACE 02 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 04 EXECUTIVE SUMMERY 05 POOLUTION IN SPACE 06 HISTORY 07 1.1 Micrometeoroids 07 1.2 Micrometeoroid shielding 08 1.3 Kessler's asteroid reading 09 1.4 NORAD, Gabbard and Kessler 10 1.5 Follow-up studies 11 1.6 A novel Kessler Syndrome 12 1.7 Classification 12 1.8 Debris in LEO 13 1.9 Debris at superior altitudes 14 1.10 Boosters 16 1.11 Debris from and as a weapon 16 1.12 Operational aspects 17 1.13 Hazard to unmanned spacecraft 18 1.14 Threat to staffed spacecraft 20 1.15 International Space Station 21 1.16 Kessler Disease and staffed spacecraft 22 1.17 Danger/risk on Earth 22 1.18 Watching and following and measurement 24 1.19 Measurement in space 25 1.20 Growth lessening (something bad) 26 1.21 Self-removal 28 1.22 External removal 28 1.23 Sling-Sat removing space (many broken