sustainability Article The Challenge of Transdisciplinary Research: A Case Study of Learning by Evaluation for Sustainable Transport Infrastructures Robert Axelsson 1, Magnus Ljung 2, Malgorzata Blicharska 3 , Michael Frisk 4, Marianne Henningsson 5, Grzegorz Mikusi ´nski 6 , Lennart Folkeson 7, Görgen Göransson 8, Sofia Jönsson-Ekström 5, Anders Sjölund 9, Jan Skoog 9, Johan Törnblom 6 and Per Angelstam 6,* 1 Western Visayas Integrated Learning Centre, C/O Robert Axelsson, Schelinska gatan 4, SE-732 32 Arboga, Sweden; [email protected] 2 Department of Work Science, Business Economics and Environmental Psychology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 234, SE-53223 Skara, Sweden; [email protected] 3 Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden; [email protected] 4 Swedish National Heritage Board, SE-114 84 Stockholm, Sweden; [email protected] 5 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Linnaeus University, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden; [email protected] (M.H.); sofi[email protected] (S.J.-E.) 6 School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden; [email protected] (G.M.); [email protected] (J.T.) 7 Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, SE-581 95 Linköping, Sweden; [email protected] 8 School of Pure and Applied Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden; [email protected] 9 Swedish Transport Administration, SE-781 89 Borlänge, Sweden; anders.sjolund@trafikverket.se (A.S.); jan.skoog@trafikverket.se (J.S.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +46-22234950 Received: 31 July 2020; Accepted: 22 August 2020; Published: 27 August 2020 Abstract: While transdisciplinary (TD) research is desired in order to solve real world sustainability issues, this may be challenging for both academic and non-academic participants. Supporting learning through evaluation, we analyzed a project aiming at sustainable transport infrastructures. After developing a TD research framework as a benchmark, two external independent evaluators interviewed all project researchers, representatives for end-users, and donors. The evaluators compared results with the framework, and evaluators and participants critically reflected on the results together. There were three inconsistencies relative to the framework: (1) limited understanding of TD research among project management, end-users, and most of the researchers; (2) no structured learning process among end-users; instead, they expressed very diverse opinions about what they expected from the project; (3) project leaders had limited understanding of the special challenges of TD research, did not fully understand the status of the project’s social system, and thus did not act as facilitators of the required collaborative learning process. Non-academic participants saw themselves as customers and not as partners in the knowledge production process. We conclude that TD problem-solving research requires much time and needs facilitation and training. A preparatory phase with a lower level of funding would be helpful in preparing for TD processes. Keywords: learning through evaluation; research design; researcher–stakeholder collaboration; sustainability; transdisciplinary; sustainable development; transport infrastructure Sustainability 2020, 12, 6995; doi:10.3390/su12176995 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 6995 2 of 24 1. Introduction Sustainable development (SD) as a societal process towards sustainability of landscapes in a non-disciplinary reality is a major challenge for researchers, planners, and land managers [1]. Planning processes involve both the social system, with its actors and stakeholders from multiple sectors and levels [2,3], and sustainability consequences in a geographical area with biophysical, anthropogenic, and perceived dimensions [4,5]. Planning with the aim to realize sustainability policy should be based on evidence-based knowledge [6–8] and planners that use a learning approach as reflective practitioners [9–11]. However, it is not easy for planners to use an evidence-based approach because both academic research and researchers are disciplinary and thus often do not address real world problems in a holistic manner [12]. Society has for a long time recognized this issue and adapted research policy to favor problem-solving transdisciplinary (TD) research, e.g., [13,14]. Research foundations and funding programs have adapted accordingly and often request projects with a mix of competences from several disciplines and end-users [14–21]. TD research applied to solving sustainability issues in landscapes as integrated social and ecological systems requires that (1) different research disciplines together build a framework for the research based on input from non-academic stakeholders and (2) the research is done in collaboration between academic and non-academic stakeholders to address real world sustainability challenges, e.g., [5,22]. This means that also disciplinary research results are important building blocks for a TD research process. TD research can thus be seen as an effort to develop evidence-based solutions to sustainability challenges together with stakeholders [23–25]. There are many terms describing TD research that are useful to address real world problems, including, but not limited to, integrative, interactive, action, participatory, interdisciplinary, and applied research, e.g., [22]. The interest in TD research is not new. As early as 1944, Brozek and Keys [26] proposed three steps to make research more useful to society: (1) getting acquainted with the problems and methods of the neighboring fields, (2) addressing the “science of science” which would provide necessary philosophical and epistemological perspectives, and (3) developing the social skills required for stimulating effective cooperation among disciplines. Due to academia’s limited capacity to solve real world problems, the traditional monopoly of academia in knowledge production has been questioned [27,28]. This is because traditional academic research often has a main focus on “increments to knowledge”, measured quantitatively as the number of scientific articles and citations, e.g., [13,29]. A key benefit of TD research is to support the sustainability of social–ecological systems, hence the emergence of sustainability science [25,30,31]. There are indeed many barriers to TD research. For example, Angelstam et al. [5] identified the following four: the amount of traditional disciplinary formal and informal control, adaptation of project applications to fill the TD research agenda, stakeholder participation, and functional team building/development based on self-reflection and experienced leadership. Axelsson [22] reviewed the literature about TD research and identified 15 barriers including lack of a generally accepted definition and associated terminology; limited capacity to collaborate within academia and with non-academic stakeholders; absence of a reward system for researchers that supports integrative research; language and cultural barriers among different research disciplines, between academic and non-academic stakeholders, and between different non-academic stakeholders, e.g., [32]; insufficient project periods because integrative research takes longer; few neutral societal platforms that could host integrative research, e.g., [33]; failure to recognize the need for additional competencies such as communicators, facilitators, and knowledge brokers as complements to researchers. Polk [34] summarizes the origins of barriers in TD research to institutional, organizational, and cognitive differences in the participating organizations. Nevertheless, many projects aim to perform TD research. However, reviews and assessments about if and how these projects manage to integrate different research disciplines and non-academic actors to provide solutions, improvements, or new ways to handle sustainability challenges are not common [35,36]. This is despite the need for learning through evaluations to improve research project success [37–40] and to contribute to the body of knowledge on different approaches to make TD Sustainability 2020, 12, 6995 3 of 24 research more socially robust, e.g., [41]. Studies about human health, e.g., [42–44], and the environment provide examples [45,46]. Management of complex TD research projects benefits from learning through ongoing evaluations [37]. This means that an external reviewer follows the process, collects data, and questions actions, strategies, and results to ensure that the project is steered towards its agreed goals [37]. This is especially true of large projects that aim to contribute to long-term sustainability [47]. Since TD research project results cannot be measured by the number of scientific publications only, a learning evaluation that includes academic and non-academic actors and the funding agency is important [47]. This process can pro-actively identify gaps and solutions, instead of just identifying failures and failing actors [41]. This study focuses on what can be learned from a comprehensive and reflective analysis of a particular research project towards sustainable transport infrastructure as a case study. The Swedish research council for strategic environmental research (Mistra) aims for top scientific quality research, which is put to