TIKI TO MICKEY: THE ANGLO-AMERICAN INFLUENCE ON NEW ZEALAND COMMERCIAL MUSIC RADIO 1931-2008 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media and Communication by Brendan Reilly University of Canterbury Christchurch New Zealand 2011 Tiki to Mickey: The Anglo-American influence on New Zealand Commercial Music Radio 1931 -2008 (used with permission © Dick Frizzell 1991) Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 7 ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 8 ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 9 CHAPTER ONE: OWNERSHIP AND THE QUESTION OF DIVERSITY ...................................................... 10 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 10 COMMERCIAL RADIO FOCUS ..................................................................................................................... 12 RADIO IN NEW ZEALAND .......................................................................................................................... 13 GROWTH IN THE LOCAL MARKET ................................................................................................................ 13 FIGURE ONE: THE INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF STATIONS/FREQUENCIES IN USE IN NEW ZEALAND BETWEEN 1988 AND 2004 ............................................................................................................................................ 14 FIGURE TWO: NEW ZEALAND RADIO LICENCES OWNED IN NEW ZEALAND IN MARCH 2004 .................................. 15 NETWORKING FOR PROFIT ........................................................................................................................ 15 OWNERSHIP AND LACK OF DIVERSITY .......................................................................................................... 16 HOMOGENEITY ....................................................................................................................................... 17 EFFORTS TO RECLAIM THE CULTURE ............................................................................................................ 17 FIGURE THREE: PERCENTAGE NZ MUSIC ON COMMERCIAL RADIO: 1997 – 2009 .............................................. 18 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................. 18 CHAPTER TWO: THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO IN NEW ZEALAND ................................................... 21 HISTORY ............................................................................................................................................... 21 CONFLICTING MODELS OF BROADCASTING .................................................................................................. 22 THE BRITISH MODEL ............................................................................................................................... 23 THE UNITED STATES MODEL ..................................................................................................................... 30 THE NEW ZEALAND EXPERIENCE ................................................................................................................ 40 1920s: Control of the medium ....................................................................................................... 41 1930s: A combination of international influence .......................................................................... 45 1940s – 50s: The rise of the commercial stations ......................................................................... 54 1960s: A New Sense of Independence ........................................................................................... 58 1970s –80s: Decade of Continuing Growth ................................................................................... 61 FIGURE FOUR: RADIO STATIONS IN NEW ZEALAND 1976 AND 1984 ................................................................ 63 1990s: The Proliferation of Private Stations .................................................................................. 66 FIGURE FIVE: RADIO STATIONS IN NEW ZEALAND 1988 AND 1993 ................................................................. 66 2000s: Consolidation of Foreign Ownership in Broadcasting........................................................ 71 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................. 75 CHAPTER THREE: UNDERSTANDING HYBRIDITY IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALISATION ..................... 82 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................................................... 82 Definitions: .................................................................................................................................... 83 Neo liberalism & Globalisation ..................................................................................................... 90 Threat to Nation States ................................................................................................................. 93 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 96 CULTURAL IMPERIALISM ........................................................................................................................... 98 Definition ....................................................................................................................................... 99 Media Imperialism ...................................................................................................................... 101 Americanisation .......................................................................................................................... 102 Cultural Synchronization ............................................................................................................. 103 Problems ..................................................................................................................................... 106 National Identity ......................................................................................................................... 107 Negations of Cultural Imperialism .............................................................................................. 108 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 109 HYBRIDISATION .................................................................................................................................... 110 Definition ..................................................................................................................................... 112 Authenticity ................................................................................................................................. 113 Critique ........................................................................................................................................ 114 Discourses ................................................................................................................................... 115 Music Markers ............................................................................................................................ 118 Intensification of local identity .................................................................................................... 119 Not dominated by one culture .................................................................................................... 120 Glocal .......................................................................................................................................... 124 Nationhood ................................................................................................................................. 125 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 127 CHAPTER FOUR: AN INSIGHT INTO THE BROADCASTING IDENTITY NEXUS IN NEW ZEALAND ........ 131 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 131 BROADCASTING AND NATIONAL IDENTITY .................................................................................................. 131 NEW ZEALAND ON AIR ........................................................................................................................... 133 NEW ZEALAND MUSIC ........................................................................................................................... 135 CULTURE ............................................................................................................................................. 141 RADIO IDEOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 143 NEW