University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. Timber Circles, Henge Monuments and Stone Circles: A reassessment of the currently accepted chronologies. Richard Andrew WILLIAMSON Submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Archaeology. Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford 2012. Abstract Richard Andrew Williamson. Timber Circles, Henge Monuments and Stone Circles: A Reassessment of the Currently Accepted Chronologies. Keywords: Timber circle, henge monument, stone circle, radiocarbon dating, relative dating, site chronologies, Neolithic, Bronze Age. The sequence of timber circle - henge monument - stone circle is widely accepted. This is in spite of the reality that the datable evidence and contextual data upon which this series is based has seldom been subjected to any real form of critical evaluation. The aim of this research was to determine whether this order could still be deemed tenable in light of contemporary research and the continued advances that have been achieved relating to the application of radiocarbon dating. The findings of this study demonstrated that sufficient contextual data exists to enable phases of construction to be identified. However rarely did these data appear to support the currently accepted chronologies. Indeed more commonly they alluded to an alternative series, one that demonstrated how some individual site sequences may have been previously misinterpreted. This study has also proven how methodological and interpretative weaknesses, relating to the use of radiocarbon dating, have created a quantifiable degree of accuracy between individual radiocarbon determinations and their ability to be reliably associated with the event or act that they have been used to date. These findings have not only cast sufficient doubt upon the reliability of the currently accepted chronologies for these three monumental forms but have also alluded to the existence of a far more appropriate sequence that conforms to the overall conclusions of this review far more convincingly. Accordingly a new series of timber circle(s) - stone circle - henge monument is proposed by this study. i Acknowledgements I am indebted to those who have given me the opportunity to undertake this research and Dr Alex Gibson who never failed to give me the necessary assistance and guidance when it was required. I would also like to acknowledge the support given to me by my parents and the assistance of Elizabeth Overton who allowed me to use her office equipment to compile this corpus. ii Abstract i Acknowledgements ii List of Contents iii List of Figures viii List of Tables Error! Bookmark not defined. Error! Bookmark not defined. Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 : Research aims 1 1.2 : Research objectives 1 1.3 : Methodology 2 1.4 : The archaeological significance of this study 4 Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1: Literature review 7 Chapter 3: A Critical Review of the Datable Evidence 3.1: Introduction 26 3.2: Technical issues 27 3.3: Age at death offsets 28 3.4: A critical review of sampling inconsistencies 32 3.5: Conclusion 40 3.6: A note on Bayesian Statistics 41 iii Chapter 4: A Critical Reassessment of the Radiocarbon Data Associated with Timber Circles, Henge Monuments and Stone Circles 4.1: Introduction 42 4.2: A critical review of the sampling strategies employed during excavation 42 4.3: A critical assessment of the impact of age-at-death offsets 46 4.4: Comparison Pro forma 48 Chapter 5: Case Studies 5.1: Introduction 50 5.2: Table of selected case studies 51 5.3: Location of selected case studies 55 Chapter 6: A Discussion of the Evidence Generated by the Analysis of the Fifteen Selected Case Studies. 6.1: Introduction 56 6.2: Discussion 57 6.3: Conclusion 109 iv Chapter 7: Findings, Observations and Conclusions. 7.1: Introduction 110 7.2: The reassessment of the datable evidence 111 7.3: Formative sites, possible origins &the currency of the considered monuments 118 7.4: The findings of the analysed case studies & other relevant evidence 138 7.5: Conclusion 159 7.6 Suggestions for future research 166 Appendices. 168 Appendix I: Case Studies. Arminghall 170 Avebury 175 Balfarg 182 Broomend of Crichie 188 Cairnpapple 194 Croft Moraig 199 Durrington Walls 205 Dyffryn Lane 215 Machrie Moor I 221 Milfield North 227 v North Mains 232 Stones of Stenness 236 Strichen 242 Temple Wood North 247 Woodhenge 252 Appendix II: Reassessment of the Datable Evidence 260 Key 262 Reliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Timber Circles 263 Less Reliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Timber Circles 270 Unreliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Timber Circles 275 Reliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Henge Monuments 282 Less Reliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Henge Monuments 291 Unreliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Henge Monuments 301 Reliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Stone Circles 320 Less Reliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Stone Circles 325 Unreliable Radiocarbon Determinations For Stone Circles 330 vi Appendix III: Site Catalogue 340 Bibliography 398 vii List of Figures Figure 1: Location of 15 Case Study Sites 55 Figure 2: The timber circles at North Mains 58 Figure 3: The two phases at Machrie Moor I 61 Figure 4: The Phases of construction for the timber circles at Woodhenge 65 Figure 5: Plan of the timber circles at Balfarg 66 Figure 6. The North-Eastern section of Woodhenge. 70 Figure 7: Plan of the site of Arminghall henge and timber horse shoe 72 Figure 8: The timber circle and class II henge monument at Milfield 74 North Figure 9. Plan of the constructed features at Broomend of Crichie 74 Figure 10: Plans of the timber circles and stone circles at Machrie Moor; Sites I & XI 82 Figure 11: The agricultural activity at Machrie Moor. 83 viii Figure 12: The multiple timber rings and double stone circle at the site of the Sanctuary 86 Figure 13: The misalignment of features at Croft Moraig. 88 Figure 14: Plan of the constructed features at the site of Strichen 91 Figure 15: Eastern section of the interior of the henge at Balfarg 92 Figure 16: The Stones of Stenness 95 Figure 17: The central mound of the Dyffryn Lane. 97 Figure 18: Plan of Cairnpapple. 103 Figure 19. The constructed features at the site of Avebury. 106 Figure 20: Aerial photography of the site of Arbor Low 108 Figure 21: The proposed sequence for the site at Avebury 175 Figure 22: The features of Balfarg 182 Figure 23: The misalignment of features at Broomend of Crichie 188 Figure 24: The internal phases of constructions at Cairnpapple Hill 194 Figure 25: The suggested alternative sequence for Croft Moraig 199 ix Figure 26: The constructed features at Durrington Walls 205 Figure 27: The replaced posts at Durrington Walls. 206 Figure 28: Plan of excavated features at Dyffryn Lane 215 Figure 29: The stone circle at Machrie Moor I 222 Figure 30: Plan of the North Mains henge and timber circles 232 Figure 31: The revised sequence for the site of Strichen 242 Figure 32: Plan of the structures at Temple Wood 247 Figure 33: The constructed features at the site of Woodhenge 252 x List of Tables Table 1: Reliability of individual radiocarbon determinations 44 Table 2: Quantification of age at death offsets 46 Table 3: Pro Forma 48 Table 4: Selected Case Studies 52 Table 5: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles 263 Table 6: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Raw Data) 264 Table 7: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Calibrated Date Ranges) 265 Table 8: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Relationship/Age Offset) 267 Table 9: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles 270 Table 10: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Raw Data) 271 Table 11: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Calibrated Date Ranges) 272 xi Table 12: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Relationship/Age Offset) 273 Table 13: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles 275 Table 14: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Raw Data) 276 Table 15: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Calibrated Date Ranges) 277 Table 16: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Timber Circles (Relationship/Age Offset) 279 Table 17: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments 282 Table 18: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Raw Data) 283 Table 19: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Calibrated Date Ranges) 284 Table 20: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Relationship/Age Offset) 286 Table 21: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments 291 Table 22: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Raw Data) 293 Table 23: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Calibrated Date Ranges) 294 xii Table 24: Less Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Relationship/Age Offset) 296 Table 25: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments 301 Table 26: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Raw Data) 304 Table 27: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Calibrated Date Ranges) 307 Table 28: Unreliable Radiocarbon Dates For Henge Monuments (Relationship/Age Offset) 311 Table 29: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Stone Circles 320 Table 30: Reliable Radiocarbon Dates For Stone Circles (Raw Data) 321 Table 31: Reliable Radiocarbon