An Introduction to Geology Delicate Arch, Arches National Park, Utah An Introduction to Geology Written by Chris Johnson, Matthew D. Affolter, Paul Inkenbrandt, Cam Mosher Salt Lake Community College – 2017 Contact the authors at [email protected] with edits, suggestions, or if adopting the book. Faculty who adopt this text for their course should contact the authors at [email protected] so that the authors can keep faculty users up to date of critical changes. —————————————————————— Edited and Reviewed by Johnathan Barnes – Salt Lake Community College Jack Bloom – Rio Tinto Kennecott Copper (retired) Deanna Brandau – Utah Museum of Natural History Gereld Bryant – Dixie State University Gregg Beukelman – Utah Geological Survey Peter Davis – Pacific Lutheran University Renee Faatz – Snow College Gabriel Filippelli – Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis Michelle Cooper Fleck – Utah State University Colby Ford – Dixie State University Michael Hylland – Utah Geological Survey J. Lucy Jordan – Utah Geological Survey Mike Kass – Salt Lake Community College Ben Laabs – North Dakota State University Tom Lachmar – Utah State University Johnny MacLean – Southern Utah University Erich Peterson – University of Utah Tiffany Rivera – Westminster College Leif Tapanila – Idaho State University Special Thanks to Jason Pickavance – Salt Lake Community College, Director of Educational Initiatives R. Adam Dastrup – Salt Lake Community College, Geoscience Dept. Chair, Director of Opengeography.org Open Educational Resources This text is provided to you as an Open Educational Resource which you access online. It is designed to give you a comprehensive introduction to Geology at no or very nominal cost. It contains both written and graphic text material, intra-text links to other internal material which may aid in understanding topics and concepts, intra-text links to the appendices and glossary for tables and definitions of words, and extra-text links to videos and web material that clarifies and augments topics and concepts. Like any new or scientific subject, Geology has its own vocabulary for geological concepts. For you to converse effectively with this text and colleagues in this earth science course, you will use the language of geology, so comprehending these terms is important. Use the intra- text links to the Glossary and other related material freely to gain familiarity with this language. Tips for study Each chapter begins with a list of KEY CONCEPTS you should be able to grasp through effective study of the chapter material. These are stated as Student Learning Objectives (SLOs) in behavioral terms. In other words, when you have completed study of that chapter, you should be able to do stated things with your understanding. Within chapters, each section concludes with a set of questions, called “Did I Get it?” questions. After completing the section, you should get these key points and answer questions related to the student learning objectives. At the end of each chapter are summaries of the sections and chapter review questions so you can review each section in the context of the chapter. 1 Understanding Science Devils Tower, Wyoming. STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: • Contrast objective versus subjective observations, and quantitative versus qualitative observations • Identify a pseudoscience based on its lack of falsifiability • Contrast the methods used by Aristotle and Galileo to describe the natural environment • Explain the scientific method and apply it to a problem or question • Describe the foundations of modern geology, such as the principle of uniformitarianism • Contrast uniformitarianism with catastrophism • Explain why studying geology is important • Identify how Earth materials are transformed by rock cycle processes • Describe the steps involved in a reputable scientific study • Explain rhetorical arguments used by science deniers 1.1 What is Science? Scientists seek to understand the fundamental principles that explain natural patterns and processes. Science is more than just a body of knowledge, science provides a means to evaluate and create new knowledge without bias [1]. Scientists use objective evidence over subjective evidence, to reach sound and logical conclusions. An objective observation is without personal bias and the same by all This is Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone in individuals. Humans are biased by nature, so Yellowstone National Park. An objective they cannot be completely objective; the goal statement about this would be: “The picture is to be as unbiased as possible. is of a waterfall.” A subjective statement A subjective observation is based on a would be: “The picture is beautiful.” An person’s feelings and beliefs and is unique to inference would be “The waterfall is there because of erosion.” that individual. Another way scientists avoid bias is by using quantitative over qualitative measurements whenever possible. A quantitative measurement is expressed with a specific numerical value. Qualitative observations are general or relative descriptions. For example, describing a rock as red or heavy is a qualitative observation. Determining a rock’s color by measuring wavelengths of reflected light or its density by measuring the proportions of minerals it contains is quantitative. Numerical values are more precise than general descriptions, and they can be analyzed using statistical calculations. This is why quantitative measurements are much more useful to scientists than qualitative observations. Establishing truth in science is difficult because all scientific claims are falsifiable, which means any initial hypothesis may be tested and proven false. Only after exhaustively eliminating false results, competing ideas, and possible variations does Canyons like this, carved in the deposit left by the May 18th, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens, a hypothesis become regarded as a are sometimes used by purveyors of reliable scientific theory. This pseudoscience as evidence for the Earth being meticulous scrutiny reveals weaknesses very young. In reality, the non-lithified or flaws in a hypothesis and is the volcanic deposit is carved much more easily strength that supports all scientific ideas than other canyons like the Grand Canyon. and procedures. In fact, proving current ideas are wrong has been the driving force behind many scientific careers. Falsifiability separates science from pseudoscience. Scientists are wary of explanations of natural phenomena that discourage or avoid falsifiability. An explanation that cannot be tested or does not meet scientific standards is not considered science, but pseudoscience. Pseudoscience is a collection of ideas that may appear scientific but does not use the scientific method. Astrology is an example of pseudoscience. It is a belief system that attributes the movement of celestial bodies to influencing human behavior. Astrologers rely on celestial observations, but their conclusions are not based on experimental evidence and their statements are not falsifiable. This is not to be confused with astronomy which is the scientific study of celestial bodies and the cosmos [2; 3]. Science is also a social process. Scientists share their ideas with peers at conferences, seeking guidance and feedback. Research papers and data submitted for publication are rigorously reviewed by qualified peers, scientists who are experts in the same field. The scientific review process aims to weed out misinformation, invalid research results, and wild speculation. Thus, it is slow, cautious, and conservative. Scientists tend to wait until a hypothesis is supported Geologists share information by publishing, by overwhelming amount of evidence from attending conferences, and even going on field many independent researchers before trips, such as this trip to western Utah by the accepting it as scientific theory. Utah Geological Association in 2009. 1.1 Did I Get It? This quiz is for you to check your comprehension of this section. 1. Which of the following are objective statements? SELECT THREE • The Earth is 4 1/2 billion years old • Geology is an important science • The blue cupcakes taste better • Geology is my major • I observed that it rained yesterday 2. What distinguishes science from pseudoscience? • Science deals with the mainstream ideas, pseudoscience does not. • In science, we just know that things are the way they are. • Measurements can prove a concept to be correct and scientific. • Pseudoscience uses experimentation to objectively reach conclusions. • Concepts must be falsifiable to be considered science. 1.2 The Scientific Method Modern science is based on the scientific method, a procedure that follows these steps: • Formulate a question or observe a problem • Apply objective experimentation and observation • Analyze collected data and Interpret results • Devise an evidence-based theory • Submit findings to peer review and/or publication This has a long history in human thought but was first fully formed by Ibn al-Haytham over 1,000 years ago. At the forefront of the scientific Diagram of the cyclical nature of method are conclusions based on objective evidence, the scientific method. not opinion or hearsay [4]. STEP ONE: OBSERVATION, PROBLEM, OR RESEARCH QUESTION The procedure begins with identifying a problem or research question, such as a geological phenomenon that is not well explained in the scientific community’s collective knowledge. This step usually involves reviewing the scientific