September, 2015 On Videogames: Representing Narrative in an Interactive Medium. 'This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy' Dawn Catherine Hazel Stobbart, Ba (Hons) MA Dawn Stobbart 1 Plagiarism Statement This project was written by me and in my own words, except for quotations from published and unpublished sources which are clearly indicated and acknowledged as such. I am conscious that the incorporation of material from other works or a paraphrase of such material without acknowledgement will be treated as plagiarism, subject to the custom and usage of the subject, according to the University Regulations on Conduct of Examinations. (Name) Dawn Catherine Stobbart (Signature) Dawn Stobbart 2 This thesis is formatted using the Chicago referencing system. Where possible I have collected screenshots from videogames as part of my primary playing experience, and all images should be attributed to the game designers and publishers. Dawn Stobbart 3 Acknowledgements There are a number of people who have been instrumental in the production of this thesis, and without whom I would not have made it to the end. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Kamilla Elliott, for her continuous and unwavering support of my Ph.D study and related research, for her patience, motivation, and commitment. Her guidance helped me throughout all the time I have been researching and writing of this thesis. When I have faltered, she has been steadfast in my ability. I could not have imagined a better advisor and mentor. I would not be working in English if it were not for the support of my Secondary school teacher Mrs Lishman, who gave me a love of the written word. This love was nurtured during my undergraduate degree by Dr. Stephen Longstaffe, who helped me turn it into something I can see myself doing for the rest of my life. Thank you both for showing me how wonderful literature really is! I would also like to thank my colleagues at Lancaster University, who accepted me as a peer, and widened my scope of academic study further than I thought was possible. Special thanks are given to my wife, Jane Peet. You gave me the confidence to begin, and have helped me believe, every time I began to think I could not do it. Without you, I would still be dreaming, not doing. I owe the genesis of this project to my father, James Stobbart, who shared his love of gaming, and did not mind that I hovered at his shoulder when he was playing. Special thanks are needed for my mother, who let me be me, no matter what I was doing. And finally, to my children Lyssa, Nevyn, and Anya. In you I see a tomorrow that shines brightly. The belief you have in me, and the support you have given me, is something I will treasure forever. Dawn Stobbart 4 Dawn Catherine Hazel Stobbart. Ba (Hons) MA On Videogames: Representing Narrative in an Interactive Medium 'This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy' September 2015 Abstract This thesis investigates the function of narrative in videogames, challenging views that games do not—and should not—have anything to do with narrative. It tests videogames against literary narrative theories and examines ways in which videogames have evolved beyond other narratives and narrative theories. The narrative vs. ludology debate among videogame scholars has, at its core, the question of whether narrative is possible in videogames. Ludologists, who prioritize videogames as games, argue that narrative is incompatible with play, both interrupting and interfering with it. My research suggests that videogames often render narrative and play symbiotic, even inseparable, as the act of playing reveals and produces videogame narrative. Other objections to videogame narrative include the argument that videogame narrative is less sophisticated than narrative forms in other media. My thesis demonstrates that some videogames contain narrative every bit as complex as those in literature and film, holding up to rigorous testing by complex narratological theories. It further shows that changes in videogame technology and design have brought about evolutions in narrative that are the result of playing rather than being at odds with it. As narrative has evolved in videogames beyond its manifestations in older media, narrative theories developed to account for older media prove to be inadequate to explicate videogame narratives. The introduction and first chapter of the thesis delineate these issues, theories, and debates. The remaining chapters probe how videogame narrative unfolds in specific areas, such as identity and identification, the navigation of narrative space, narrative agency and authority, consumer ethics, and concepts of death and genre. Finally, the thesis considers the endings of videogames and how death is presented and represented in this medium. My conclusion summarises my own work and suggests possibilities for future studies of videogame narratives. Dawn Stobbart 5 Contents Introduction10 Methodology, Materials, Limitations. ................................................................................. 17 Chapter Summaries .............................................................................................................. 22 Chapter 1: Definitions and Debates................................................................................................... 25 Definitions and Terminology ................................................................................................ 25 A Brief History of Videogames ............................................................................................ 32 A Brief History of Videogame Scholarship ......................................................................... 38 Play as Narrative Immersion ............................................................................................... 45 Ludonarrative Dissonance ................................................................................................... 50 Juul’s Rules: Videogames and Classic Game Theory ........................................................ 51 Aristotle’s Rules: Videogames and Classical Narrative Theory ....................................... 58 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 60 Chapter 2: Narratology in Videogames—Assassin’s Creed 2 ......................................................... 61 Genette’s Narratological Levels and Videogame Levels ................................................... 62 Beyond Classical Narratology: Ludology and Time in Videogames ................................ 70 Movement Across a Narrative: Temporality in Videogames ............................................ 74 Flash Back – Or Forward: Prolepsis and Analepsis in Videogame Narratives ............... 81 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 84 Chapter 3: Narratives of Space in Videogames ................................................................................ 85 Letters to Esther: Experimental Narrative Techniques in Dear Esther ........................... 97 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 112 Chapter 4: Identification and Identity in Videogames .................................................................. 114 Focalisation .......................................................................................................................... 118 Perspective ........................................................................................................................... 124 Third-person Perspective ......................................................................................................... 125 Second-person Perspective ....................................................................................................... 131 First-person Perspective ........................................................................................................... 135 Decentred Point Of View .................................................................................................... 141 Evolution: The Decentred View in Lara Croft, the Novel, Film, and Videogame Franchise .............................................................................................................................. 143 Identification, Replay, Avatars, and Authorship ............................................................. 148 Part 2: .................................................................................................................................................. 157 Gaming and Narrative Ideology .......................................................................................................... 157 Dawn Stobbart 6 Chapter 5: Ideology, Identity Politics, and Identification ............................................................. 158 Gendered Identity and Identification ................................................................................ 163 Birth and Rebirth – Maternality in Tomb Raider............................................................. 169 Sexual Identity and Identification in Videogames ........................................................... 173 Identity Politics and Identification in Videogames