University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) A PALAEODEMOGRAPHIC, PALAEOPATHOLOGIC AND MORPHOLOGIC STUDY OF THE 20th CENTURY VENDA ERICKA N L’ABBE A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2005 University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Pretoria, Pretoria. It is has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. _________________________________ ________ day of ________________ 2004 University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) Table of Contents List of Figures iv List of Tables v Abstract vii Acknowledgments ix Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1. The 20th century Venda 1 1.2. Origins of the Venda 8 1.3. Aim 10 Chapter 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Origin of the skeletal material 13 2.1.1. Nandoni Dam Project (2001) 14 2.1.2. Approval for skeletal analysis 14 2.1.3. Excavation of graves in Venda 14 2.1.4. Accession numbers for skeletons from Nandoni 15 2.1.5. Mutoti Dam Project (1999) 15 2.2. Skeletal material 16 2.3. Methods for skeletal analysis 16 2.3.1. Metric analysis 16 2.3.2. Sex determination 16 2.3.2.1. Morphology 17 2.3.2.2. Osteometric analysis 18 2.3.2.3. Juveniles 19 2.3.3. Age determination 19 2.3.3.1. Stillborns, Infants and Juveniles 20 2.3.3.2. Adults 22 Chapter 3. Palaeodemography 3.1. Introduction & Literature Review 26 3.1.1. Sampling of the population 28 3.1.2. Estimation of age from skeletal remains 28 3.1.3. Stationary populations 30 3.1.4. Individual heterogeneity 31 3.1.5. Aim 31 3.2. Materials and Methods 31 3.2.1. Comparative South African populations 33 3.3. Results 36 3.4. Discussion 40 3.4.1. Shortcomings 40 3.4.2. Interpretation of the demographic profile 40 3.4.2. General demographic trends from the Iron Age to present 42 i University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) Chapter 4. Palaeopathology 4.1. Introduction & Literature Review 52 4.1.1. Aim 54 4.2. Materials and Methods 55 4.3. Results 55 4.3.1. Non-specific signs of infectious disease 56 4.3.1.1. Sub-periosteal lesions 59 4.3.1.2. Cribra orbitalia 62 4.3.2. Specific infectious disease 65 4.3.2.1. Leprosy 65 4.3.2.2. Osteomyelitis 67 4.3.3. Trauma 72 4.3.4. Arthritis – degenerative changes in the skeleton 75 4.3.4.1. Osteoarthritis 75 4.3.4.2. Spinal degeneration 77 4.3.5. Stature 79 Chapter 5. Dental Health 5.1. Introduction & Literature Review 93 5.1.1. Aim 94 5.2. Materials and Methods 94 5.3. Results 94 5.4. Dental caries 95 5.5. Periapical abscess 103 5.6. Antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) 105 5.7. Enamel hypoplasia 109 Chapter 6. Population Affinity 6.1. Craniometry 121 6.1.1. Theories regarding the origin of the Venda 121 6.1.2. Cranial variation among humans 123 6.1.3. Aim 124 6.1.4. Materials and methods 125 6.1.4.1. Comparative populations 125 6.1.4.2. Metric variables and statistical analysis 128 6.1.4.3. Univariate statistics 129 6.1.4.4. Multivariate statistics 129 6.1.5. Results 132 6.1.5.1. ANOVA 132 6.1.5.2. Discriminant function (canonical analysis) 133 6.1.5.3. Factor analysis 135 6.1.6. Discussion 137 6.1.6.1. Relationship between the Venda and other African groups 138 6.1.6.2. Relationship between K2 and the Venda 140 ii University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) 6.2. Odontometry 6.2.1. Introduction 163 6.2.2. Materials and methods 166 6.2.2.1. Comparative populations 167 6.2.2.2. Penrose analysis 171 6.2.3. Results 171 6.2.4. Discussion 173 Chapter 7. Discussion 7.1. Introduction 180 7.2. Sample representation 181 7.2.1. Exhumation of graves in Venda 181 7.2.2. Preservation of skeletal remains 183 7.3. General health status of the Venda 184 7.3.1. Demography 184 7.3.2. Infectious disease 186 7.3.3. Dental health 191 7.4. Population affinity 193 Chapter 8. Conclusion 197 References 200 Appendix A Legend 227 Individual skeletal reports 228 Appendix B Descriptive statistics of cranial measurements for males and females 362 Appendix C Descriptive statistics of post cranial measurements for males and females 363 iii University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) List of Figures Figure 1.1. Map of Africa showing the location of South African and Venda 12 Figure 1.2. Skeletons used in this study came from: Budeli, Dididi, Mpego, Mulenzhe, and Mutoti. Tshilangoma and the Machivandihala are not shown. 12 Figure 4.1. Destruction of the hard palate and loss of the maxilla, possibly leprosy (NANMUL267) 85 Figure 4.2. Possible case of leprosy: destruction of the hard palate of NANMUL267 86 Figure 4.3. Atrophy of the maxilla and nasal margin, possible case of leprosy (NANMUL267) 87 Figure 4.4. Compound fracture with visible cloacae (NANMUL375) 88 Figure 4.5. Possible case of osteomyelitis (NANMUL766) 88 Figure 4.6. Osteomyelitis: upper humerus (NANMUL267) 89 Figure 4.7. Osteomyelitis: left femur (NANMUL267) 90 Figure 4.8. Healed fracture: left femur (NANMUL375) 91 Figure 4.9. Surgical wire on the mandible (NANMUL261) 91 Figure 4.10. Compressed fracture of T8 (NANMUL337) 92 Figure 6.1.1. Map of comparative populations 153 Figure 6.1.2. Scatterplot of analysis I of MDA 154 Figure 6.1.3. Scatterplot of analysis II of MDA 155 Figure 6.1.4. Scatterplot of analysis IV of MDA 156 Figure 6.1.5. Scatterplot of factor analysis I: Vault (Face) 157 Figure 6.1.6. Scatterplot of factor analysis II: Vault (Face) 158 Figure 6.1.7. Scatterplot of factor analysis III: Vault (Face) 159 Figure 6.1.8: Scatterplot of factor analysis IV: Face (Vault) 160 Figure 6.1.9. Scatterplot of factor analysis V: Face (Vault) 161 Figure 6.1.10. Scatterplot of factor analysis VI: Face (Vault) 162 iv University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) List of Tables Table 2.1. Summary of skeletal material from seven villages in Venda 25 Table 3.1. Life tables for the Venda not adjusted for growth rate 44 Table 3.2. Life tables for the Venda adjusted for a growth rate of 2.3% 45 Table 3.3. Life table for black South Africans from the Rebecca Street Cemetery not adjusted for growth rate 46 Table 3.4. Life table for black South Africans from the Rebecca Street Cemetery adjusted for a growth rate of 2.3% 47 Table 3.5. Life table for white South Africans from the Rebecca Street Cemetery not adjusted for growth rate. 48 Table 3.6. Life table for white South Africans from the Rebecca Street Cemetery adjusted for growth rate of 1.85%. 49 Table 3.7. Comparison of life expectancy at birth and adulthood among various populations in Southern Africa. 50 Table 3.8. Life expectancy at birth and adulthood for whites and blacks in South Africa by decade from the burial registers at the Rebecca Street and Mamelodi cemeteries adjusted for a growth rate of r = .0185 (whites) and .023 (blacks). 51 Table 3.9. Comparison of mortality rates for children less than 5 years of age with life expectancy at birth for South African blacks and whites for the years 1935-1970. 51 Table 4.1. Frequency of skeletal pathology in the Venda 82 Table 4.2. Comparison of sub-periosteal growth on the long bones 82 Table 4.3. Frequency of cribra orbitalia in South African populations 83 Table 4.4. A summary of stature of the Venda and other South African populations. 84 Table 5.1. Summary of the incidence of dental caries in the Venda. 113 Table 5.2. Caries intensity for the Venda sorted by age and sex. 113 Table 5.3. Caries intensity for the Venda sorted by sex and tooth type. 114 Table 5.4. Incidence of dental caries in various South African populations. 115 Table 5.5. Summary of the incidence of AMTL in the Venda. 116 v University of Pretoria etd – L’abbe, E N (2005) Table 5.6. AMTL intensity for the Venda sorted by sex and age. 116 Table 5.7. AMTL per tooth type for the Venda sorted by sex and age. 117 Table 5.8. Summary of the incidence of enamel hypoplasia in the Venda. 118 Table 5.9. Enamel hypoplasia in the Venda sorted by sex and tooth type. 119 Table 5.10. Incidence of enamel hypoplasia in various South African populations. 120 Table 6.1.1. Summary of categorical variables for population 1 & population 2. 142 Table 6.1.2 Metric variables used from the cranium and mandible. 143 Table 6.1.3. Descriptive statistics of metric variables from the cranium and mandible. 144 Table 6.1.4a. One way analysis of variance for testing group differences on individual variables (POP1) 145 Table 6.1.4b. One way analysis of variance for testing group differences on individual variables (POP2) 146 Table 6.1.5. Eigenvalues for analysis I, III & IV for the discriminant axes for population 2.