Media, Alcohol Consumption and Young People in an Eastern Nigerian University Campus: A Qualitative Study Emeka W. Dumbili Thesis submitted to Brunel University London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) March 2015 Abstract This study draws on cultivation analysis (Gerbner, 1969) to explore the interrelating factors concerning the role of media in young people’s consumption of alcohol at a south-eastern Nigerian university. Nigeria has the second highest alcohol consumption in Africa. Traditionally, drinking spaces were dominated by adult males for socio-cultural reasons but in contemporary Nigeria there is increasing concern that younger men and women are now also drinking harmfully. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 22 male and 9 female undergraduate students (aged 19-23 years) to explore the ways in which media consumption shapes their drinking behaviour. Whilst young people’s consumption of both local and foreign media was high and gendered, one key motivation for using alcohol was aspirational, particularly among those who consumed Hollywood films. Many of the participants who consumed Hollywood films may have learned to associate heavy consumption with high social status. Importantly, this thesis demonstrates that although local films portray alcohol in a mainly negative light, this also motivates young people to drink as they learn how to use alcohol to ameliorate anxiety or depression. Young people’s drinking patterns were found to be gendered, underscoring a resilient socio- cultural belief in which men see alcohol as good for males while women believe that it should not be confined to men. Consequently, the women employed male-gendered drinking behaviours such as heavy drinking to develop social capital. At the same time, both male and female participants discussed taking part in risky sexual behaviour but the outcomes differed for males and females, with this behaviour being more stigmatised in women. Alcohol advertising and promotion were found to be highly influential because they encourage brand preference and brand allegiance, actively facilitate change of brand, and lead to excessive consumption amongst male and female participants. Although the participants confirmed that promotional activities facilitate alcohol misuse, they argued that promotions should not be regulated because promotional prizes alleviate poverty. This study furthers the discussion on cultivation theory by demonstrating that heavy television viewing cultivates alcohol consumption among this population and it contributes to cultivation and audience research by revealing that negative portrayals can also influence i young people. This study’s findings can inform educational campaigns and policy formulation in Nigeria, particularly those that tackle alcohol availability, heavy episodic drinking and risky sexual behaviour; and those that encourage media literacy and more positive and equal relationships between women and men. ii Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i List of Figures and Tables ......................................................................................................... vii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... viii Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... x Declaration ............................................................................................................................... xii Chapter One: .................................................................................................................... 1 Alcohol and the Historical Development of Nigeria ........................................................... 1 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. The Historical Context of Alcohol in Nigeria ................................................................ 3 1.2. The Anti and Pro-Liquor Trade Activism ...................................................................... 9 1.3. Alcohol and Social Identity in the Pre-Independence Nigeria ................................... 12 1.4. Alcohol, Culture and Nigerian Society ....................................................................... 15 1.5. Conclusion and Overview of Thesis Chapters ........................................................... 17 Chapter Two: .................................................................................................................. 20 Exploring Patterns of Alcohol Use in the Nigerian Context ............................................... 20 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 20 2.2. Alcohol Use among South-western Nigerian University Students ............................... 22 2.3. Alcohol Use among Undergraduate Students in south-eastern Nigeria ...................... 29 2.4. Alcohol Consumption among Nigerian Women ........................................................... 32 2.5. Alcohol and Nigerian Media .......................................................................................... 35 2.5.1. Alcohol portrayal in Nigerian-made Movies ........................................................... 35 2.5.2. Alcohol Marketing Strategies in Nigeria ................................................................. 37 2.5.3. A Case Study of Alcohol Advertising on Electronic and Print Media ...................... 39 2.5.4. Effects of Alcohol Promotion on Students and other Young People ..................... 42 2.6. Conceptualising Hegemonic Masculinity ...................................................................... 43 2.7. The Fluidity of Gender ................................................................................................... 44 2.8. Hegemonic Masculinity and Sexuality in Nigeria .......................................................... 45 2.9. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 47 iii Chapter Three: ............................................................................................................... 48 Media and Cultivation Theory ......................................................................................... 48 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 48 3.2. Exploration of Cultivation Analysis................................................................................ 50 3.3. Importance of Cultivation Analysis and why it was selected for this Study ................. 57 3.4. Nollywood, Hollywood, Cultivation Analysis and Alcohol Consumption ...................... 60 3.5. Potential Weaknesses of Cultivation Analysis .............................................................. 62 3.6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 63 Chapter Four: Methodology ............................................................................................ 65 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 65 4.2. Strategies of Inquiry ...................................................................................................... 66 4.2.1. Pilot Studies and Planning ...................................................................................... 66 4.2.2. The Research Site and Gaining Access ................................................................... 67 4.2.3. Procedure for Recruiting Participants .................................................................... 70 4.2.4. Research Questions ................................................................................................ 73 4.2.5. Conducting Interviews with Young People ............................................................. 73 4.2.6. Selecting Interviewees: how many is enough? ...................................................... 74 4.3. Rationale for Choosing Qualitative Techniques ............................................................ 75 4.3.1. Reason for Choosing Qualitative Interviewing Method ......................................... 78 4.3.2. The Usefulness of Interviews .................................................................................. 81 4.3.3. The Potential Disadvantages of Qualitative Interviews ......................................... 82 4.3.4. Rationale for Choosing Observational Method of Inquiry ..................................... 83 4.4. Data Analysis and Synthesis .......................................................................................... 84 4.4.1. Field Notes and Analytical Memo ........................................................................... 89 4.5. Reflection on the Fieldwork .......................................................................................... 89 4.5.1. Ethical Considerations and Reflection on Social Positioning as a Male Researcher .........................................................................................................................................