POLYTECHNIC OF TURIN Master of Science in Automotive Engineering The Diesel Case: Mystification or Subsequent Predestined Decline? An analysis of the current and future situation throughout Dieselgate and Europe 2020. Andrea Simonotti Tutor: Prof. Paolo Federico Ferrero AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING A.Y. 2017/2018 Final Project Page 2 of 186 March 2017 AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING A.Y. 2017/2018 To my Parents, that have always supported me and pushed me in every step of this adventure since the very beginning. To my brother, Dado, always present even if always around the world. To my grandparents, and relatives, who I could always rely on. To my historical friends in Rome, Matteo, Edoardo, Ilaria, Federica and Marcella... ..but also Cico, Mirty and Gabro. To my flatmate and friend, Gerard, for bearing me every day. To my Tutor in FIAT, Luca Marengo, and all my colleagues, that have welcomed me as a part of the team. To my professor Paolo Ferrero, for helping me in the creation of this work. And to all my friends, in Italy and abroad, for being part of the path that led me to where I am today. Final Project Page 3 of 186 March 2017 AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING A.Y. 2017/2018 Table of Contents Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................... 13 Executive Summary .......................................................................................................................... 14 1. THE HISTORY OF DIESEL ENGINE ................................................................................................. 16 1.1 Rudolf Diesel’ Invention ......................................................................................................... 16 1.2 Charles Wallace Chapman first Diesel Engine for Cars .......................................................... 18 1.3 First Diesel Cars ...................................................................................................................... 18 1.4 Definitive Growth of Diesel .................................................................................................... 20 2. CHEMICAL OF DIESEL FUELS. ....................................................................................................... 23 2.1 Cetane Number ...................................................................................................................... 24 2.2 Biodiesel ................................................................................................................................. 25 2.3 Basics of Diesel Cycle. ............................................................................................................ 27 2.3.1 Otto Cycle vs. Diesel Cycle efficiency .............................................................................. 29 2.4 Exhaust Gas Emissions ........................................................................................................... 31 2.5 Atmospheric Pollution. .......................................................................................................... 33 3.POLLUTANT FORMATION IN THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE. ........................................ 39 3.1 Carbon dioxide (C02) .............................................................................................................. 41 3.2 Carbon monoxide (CO) ........................................................................................................... 43 3.3 Hydrocarbons (HC) ................................................................................................................. 44 3.4 Nitrous oxides (NOx) .............................................................................................................. 45 3.4.1 Ozone and smog .................................................................................................................. 46 3.4.2 Kinetics of Nitrogen Compounds ........................................................................................ 47 3.4.3 Raw NOx emissions ......................................................................................................... 49 3.5 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) ............................................................................................................. 49 3.6 Particulates ............................................................................................................................. 50 3.7 Additional Unregulated Pollutant .......................................................................................... 51 3.8 Pollutant formation as a function of air to fuel ratio. ............................................................ 53 4.EMISSION REGULATIONS ............................................................................................................. 56 4.1 Euro Standards: Chronology .................................................................................................. 57 Final Project Page 4 of 186 March 2017 AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING A.Y. 2017/2018 4.2 Euro Emissions Breakdown .................................................................................................... 58 4.2.1 Euro 1 (EC93) ................................................................................................................... 58 4.2.2 Euro 2 (EC96) ................................................................................................................... 59 4.2.3 Euro 3 (EC2000) ............................................................................................................... 59 4.2.4 Euro 4 (EC2005) ............................................................................................................... 60 4.2.5 Euro 5 (EC2009/9) ........................................................................................................... 60 4.2.6 Euro 6 (EC2014) ............................................................................................................... 62 4.2.7 Euro 6C ............................................................................................................................ 64 4.2.7 Euro 6D ............................................................................................................................ 65 4.3 Technology to reduce NOx emissions. ................................................................................... 65 4.3.1 EGR .................................................................................................................................. 65 4.3.2. NSR (NOx Storage and Reduction) ................................................................................. 67 4.3.3 SCR, Selective Catalytic Reduction .................................................................................. 68 4.4 Testing of exhaust gas emissions. .......................................................................................... 71 5. DRIVIGN CYCLES. ......................................................................................................................... 74 5.1 ECE+EUDC ............................................................................................................................... 74 5.2 NEDC ....................................................................................................................................... 74 5.3 Critics to NEDC. ...................................................................................................................... 76 5.4 WLTP normative and WLTC approval cycle. .......................................................................... 80 5.4.1 Classification of vehicles. ................................................................................................ 82 5.4.2 Cycles. .............................................................................................................................. 82 5.4.3 Cycle Modifications ......................................................................................................... 87 5.4.4 WLTP for Hybrid and Electrics Vehicles. ......................................................................... 87 5.5 Differences between NEDC and WLTP. .................................................................................. 90 5.6 American driving cycles .......................................................................................................... 92 5.6.1 FTP-75 cycle..................................................................................................................... 92 5.6.2 USA Standard Emission Tier 2 ......................................................................................... 93 6. ROAD TO EUROPE 2020 ............................................................................................................... 96 6.1 Climate & Energy Package ..................................................................................................... 96 6.2 Penalties ............................................................................................................................... 105 7. DIESELGATE ................................................................................................................................ 108 7.1 The research ......................................................................................................................... 108 Final Project Page 5 of 186 March 2017 AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING A.Y. 2017/2018 7.2 Results .................................................................................................................................