ENT000362 Submitted: March 29, 2012 ANNEX C Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION................................................... 158 I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS .............. 158 A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS ..................................... 159 1. Numberandyieldsoftests................................ 159 2. Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris ................ 160 3. Annualdosesfromglobalfallout........................... 168 4. Localandregionalexposures.............................. 172 B. UNDERGROUNDTESTS.................................... 176 C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS .................... 177 1. UnitedStates.......................................... 177 2. RussianFederation ..................................... 177 3. UnitedKingdom ....................................... 179 4. France............................................... 179 5. China ............................................... 180 II. NUCLEARPOWERPRODUCTION................................ 180 A. MININGANDMILLING .................................... 180 1. Effluents ............................................. 181 2. Dose estimates ......................................... 181 B. URANIUMENRICHMENTANDFUELFABRICATION............ 182 C. NUCLEARREACTOROPERATION........................... 182 1. Effluents ............................................. 183 2. Local and regional dose estimates .......................... 186 D. FUELREPROCESSING ..................................... 188 1. Effluents ............................................. 188 2. Local and regional dose estimates .......................... 188 E. GLOBALLYDISPERSEDRADIONUCLIDES.................... 189 F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT .................. 190 G. SUMMARYOFDOSEESTIMATES ........................... 190 III. OTHER EXPOSURES ........................................... 191 A. RADIOISOTOPEPRODUCTIONANDUSE ..................... 191 B. RESEARCHREACTORS.................................... 192 C. ACCIDENTS .............................................. 192 CONCLUSIONS.................................................... 193 158 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION Page Tables ............................................................ 195 References ......................................................... 287 INTRODUCTION 1. The Committee has continually kept under review the to the environment and the exposure of individuals. Beyond exposures of the world population resulting from releases to the testing of nuclear weapons, the military fuel cycle, the environment of radioactive materials from man-made involving the production of weapons materials and the sources. Exposures from such sources reviewed in the fabrication of the weapons, has also resulted in releases of UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] included atmospheric nuclear radioactive materials to the environment. Information on testing, underground nuclear testing,nuclear weaponsfabrica- exposures in areas surrounding the industrial sites of nuclear tion, nuclear power production, radioisotope production and materials production and weapons fabrication are considered uses, and accidents at various locations. New information on in this Annex. Both historical and contemporary data not man-made environmental exposures is considered in this previously reviewed by the Committee are presented. Annex. 4. Nuclear power production continues in a number of 2. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere was countries, where it is an important component of electrical the most significant cause of exposure of the world popula- energy generation. Rather complete monitoring and reporting tion to man-made environmental sources of radiation. The of radionuclides released, especially from nuclear reactors, practice continued from 1945 to 1980. Although the testing provide adequate data to allow analysing exposures from this has ceased and the Committee's assessment of global doses source. Data on annual releases for 19901997 and analysis based on measured 90Sr deposition remains an accurate of longer-term trends are included in this Annex. Another evaluation of the resulting exposures, particularly for long- continuing practice, radioisotope production and uses, lived radionuclides, new data on the yields of individual tests involves at the production stage rather trivial doses that can be have been made available. These allow more detailed only roughly estimated from the total size of the industry calculations of the dispersal of radionuclides throughout the worldwide and some approximate figures on fractional world following the injection of debris into the atmosphere. releases of the radionuclides produced. The Committee Estimates of total deposition and doses from individual radio- previously assessed these exposures. The exposures of family nuclides are re-evaluated in this Annex, which also considers members of patients who received therapeutic treatments with exposures to individuals who lived near the test sites. Previous 131I are considered in this Annex. estimatesofexposuresfrom atmospherictesting were based on accumulated average doses (dose commitments), but there is 5. Another source ofexposures that maybe considered interest as well in the annual doses received by individuals. to be man-made is the use of fuels or materials containing Annual dose estimates are derived in this Annex. naturally occurring radionuclides. These are referred to as enhanced natural radiation exposures. It has been the 3. Following the cessation of atmospheric testing, nuclear practice of the Committee to evaluate these along with weapons continued to be tested underground. Several further other exposures from natural radiation. These evaluations underground tests were conducted in 1998. Underground are included in Annex B, “Exposures from natural testing results only infrequently in releases of radionuclides radiation sources”. I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS 6. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, U6] are complete and still valid. In the latter Report [U3], which took place from 1945 until 1980, involved un- transfer coefficients are given for the dose per unit release restrained releases of radioactive materials directly to the or per unit deposition density for over 20 radionuclides for environment and caused the largest collective dose thus far the inhalation, ingestion, and external exposure pathways. from man-made sources of radiation. Previous assessments by the Committee of the total collective dose to the world 7. The evaluation of doses to the hemispheric and world population in the UNSCEAR 1982 and 1993 Reports [U3, populations from this practice has been based on the ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 159 measured global deposition density of 90Sr, limited 12. Compilations of data on atmospheric nuclear tests measurements of 95Zr deposition, and on estimated ratios of have been published within the last few years, first by the the deposition of other radionuclides to these. The annual United States [D4], then by the former Soviet Union [M2], depositions of 90Sr were measured in some detail during the the United Kingdom [J3], and France [D3]. Information years when testing in the atmosphere took place. This has was provided on the date of each test, its name or designa- meant that the collective doses could be evaluated more tion, location, type, purpose, and the total explosive yield. directly and with less uncertainty than would be the case if To verify production amounts of important globally uncertain estimates of the amounts of radionuclides produced dispersed fission radionuclides, it would also be necessary in the tests and their dispersion in the environment had to be to know the fission yield of each test or series of tests. relied on. However, lack of sufficient data for other, and especially the shorter-lived, radionuclides limits the reliability 13. The data on atmospheric nuclear tests needed by the 95 90 of the estimated ratios to Zr and Sr. Committee for exposure evaluations are given in Table 1, and a summary for each country and each test site is 8. In recent years some further details of atmospheric provided in Table 2. The date, type, and total explosive nuclear testing have become available. In particular, the yield of individual tests are as reported by the country. In numbers and total yields of the explosions have been a few cases, the total yields reported by the United States officially reported, providing reliable basic input data, and and the former Soviet Union were indefinite (“low”, “sub estimates are being made of the local doses to populations megatonne”, or within a designated range). Specific values living in the vicinities of the test sites. This information is for summations and analyses were estimated based on taken note of by the Committee to complete the historical assumptions given in the footnotes to Table 1. record of this practice. 14. Assumptions are also needed to estimate the fission 9. In its previous assessments, the Committee emphasized and fusion yields of individual tests. Relatively low yield the estimation of the collective doses from atmospheric explosions may be assumed to be due to fission only, and nuclear testing and did not evaluate annual doses in detail. very high yield explosions were thermonuclear tests with Approximate magnitudes of annual doses were presented in substantial fusion yields. For the purpose