7 ~% 3 588 \ Violence against Women Edited by Caroline Sweetman «4: Oxfam Focus on Gender The books in Oxfam's Focus on Gender series were originally published as single issues of the journal Gender and Development (formerly Focus on Gender). Gender and Development is published by Oxfam three times a year. It is the only British journal to focus specifically on gender and development issues internationally, to explore the links between gender and development initiatives, and to make the links between theoretical and practical work in this field. For information about subscription rates, please apply to Carfax Publishing Company, PO Box 25, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3UE, UK; Fax: +44 (0) 1235 401550. In North America, please apply to Carfax Publishing Company, 875-81 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139; Fax: (+1) 617 354 6875. In Australia, please apply to Carfax Publishing Company, PO Box 352, Cammeray, NSW 2062, Australia; Fax: +61 (0) 2 9958 2376. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the written permission of the Publisher. Front cover: A rally in Nairobi protesting about violence against women. Photo: Geoff Sayer © Oxfam GB1998 Published by Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK. Reprinted by Oxfam GB 2004 Oxfam is a registered charity No. 202918 Oxfam GB is a member of Oxfam International ISBN 0 85598 4015 This book converted to digital file in 2010 Contents Editorial 2 Caroline Sweetman Development practice and violence against women 7 Puma Sen Working towards a world free from violence against women: UNIFEM's contribution 17 Noeleen Heyzer Forced marriage, forced sex: the perils of childhood for girls 27 Mariam Ouattara, Puma Sen, and Marilyn Thomson 'The tears have not stopped, the violence has not ended': Political upheaval, ethnicity, and violence against women in Indonesia 34 Caluh Wandita 'I am witness to...' A profile of Sakshi Violence Intervention Centre, India 42 Aanchal Kapur 'Circumcision', culture, and health-care provision in Tower Hamlets, London 48 Joan Cameron and Karen Rowlings Anderson Political change, rape, and pornography in post-apartheid South Africa 55 Teboho Maitse Researching 'a family affair': Domestic violence in former Yugoslavia and Albania 60 Sarah Maguire Interview: Tanya Lipovskaya talks about the Sisters Sexual Assault Recovery Centre, Moscow, Russia 67 Resources: 71 Compiled by Emma Bell Books and Videos 71 Organisations 74 Campaigns 76 Websites 77 Journals and reports 78 Editorial 'Victims [of violence against women] are another human being' (Pinthus 1982, 2, in chosen because of their gender. The message Ramazanoglu 1987). However, the limited is domination: stay in your place or be afraid. space available prohibits comprehensive Contrary to the argument that such violence coverage of the many different forms of is only personal or cultural, it is profoundly abuse experienced by women which could political.' (Bunch and Carrillo 1992) be embraced by this definition. Issues which are addressed here include female n the occasion of the 50th anniver- genital mutilation, early marriage, abuse sary of the UN Declaration of and beatings within the home, and rape OHuman Rights in November 1998, and sexual assault — by partners, acquain- many organisations working on gender tances or strangers, in 'formal' armed and women's issues are choosing to high- conflict and as racist violence against light, once again, the endemic violence minorities. Writers in this collection look at against women which continues to exist in violence against women in many different countries throughout the world. The extent settings: in conflict and in peacetime; in the of this violence can be seen in the statistics: home and in public; as members of 'differ- the World Health Organisation estimates that ent' ethnic groupings; as children and as at least one in five women has been physi- adults. While most articles concentrate on cally or sexually abused by a man or men at one specific manifestation of violence against some time in her life (WHO, 1997), and women, Noeleen Heyzer of UNIFEM pro- according to a study by the World Bank vides an overview in hers of the many drawing on data from 35 countries, one- forms of violence against women through- quarter to more than half of women report out the world, and outlines strategies to having been physically abused by a present combat this. Purna Sen also takes a broad or former partner, while far more have suf- perspective on violence, from the angle of fered emotional and psychological abuse development practice and policy. (Heise 1994). Mindful of statistics like these, this collection of articles focuses specifically Researching the causes on violence against women, rather than of male violence more widely on violence and gender, which would have permitted an examination of Cross-cultural research suggests 'the violence against men and boys. existence of "male" violence against Violence has been usefully defined as women in all societies and across time' 'any action or structure that diminishes (Dobash and Dobash 1998, forthcoming). It Editorial is found in every socio-economic group, fact that individual men are free agents ideology, class, race, and ethnic grouping. who can choose to use or reject violent 'If violence [were] a form of random deviance behaviour, whatever the social conditions. rather than a reflection of recurring social Theories of violence which attribute male relations, then one need not worry about violence to social causes may encourage the shape and form of everyday social life, policymakers to condone male abuse, and but only about deviations from it' (ibid). In fail to challenge the general societal apathy line with this, in her article on the work of which surrounds men's violence against Sakshi, a 'violence intervention centre' in women. Such theories have been advanced India, Aanchal Kapur argues that until a by various organisations including the UN, transformation of 'everyday' gender rela- which has described violence as a way of tions occurs, men's violence cannot be life in situations of poor housing and ended at its source, because it is rooted in economic vulnerability (UN 1989). unequal relations of power between men In her article on Oxfam's research into and women, and women's resistance to that domestic violence in Eastern Europe, Sarah control (Pickup, 1998). In this sense at least, Maguire considers the links between armed there is a structural explanation for all male conflict, the militarisation of society, and violence against women — the existence of violence against women in the home. She patriarchy. 'Patriarchy, or the sex/gender argues that a direct relationship between order, has at its disposal a whole range of increased violence in wider society and techniques and mechanisms of control. increased male violence cannot be assumed Among these are force and physical — in her research, findings were far more violence.' (Edwards 1987, 24) complex and contradictory. However, differences in the form and The concerns raised by Maguire and pattern of male violence against women in Maitse are shared by other researchers into different societies does give hope that social male violence, who assert that social policy and practice can lessen or end such research must be conducted responsibly, violence. Variation in 'both the nature and because it cannot be separated from its level of this violence between men and political, cultural, and moral contexts. Jeff across different societies and/or cultural Hearn, a researcher into 'men's violences', contexts... suggests cultural specificity and points out that research which focuses on the importance of different contexts rather men and their experiences of 'masculinity' than an unvaried, universal behaviour' in the absence of a feminist awareness of gen- (Dobash and Dobash 1998, forthcoming). der power relations may actually entrench Determining what circumstances aggravate the status quo, by being 'all too appealing societal violence is therefore the first step in [to men] as a means to further power' much research by social policy and (Hearn 1998,1). Funding and other resources development institutions. for research into male perpretrators of In her article on pornography and violence, and for rehabilitation work with violence against women, Teboho Maitse them, should not be seen as an alternative explores different poverty- and militarisation- to working with women who have been based explanations for widespread male victims of male violence, but as a comple- violence against women in South Africa, mentary strategy. which continues in the post-apartheid era. Maitse argues that explanations of male Violence and choice violence which focus on disadvantage, or even violence, in society are dangerous if, Women experience violence in different as a result, attention is taken away from the forms, depending, among other factors, on their age and social position. Two articles Development and violence in this collection address different facets of against women young women's experience of violence. Mariam Ouattara, Purna Sen, and Marilyn Violence against women has only relatively Thomson discuss different experiences of recently been widely acknowledged to be a early marriage in Africa and Asia. Joan key issue for development and social policy. Cameron and Karen Rawlings Anderson Purna Sen identifies three main approaches discuss female genital mutilation (FGM) to violence against women from a develop- among Somali women who have migrated ment perspective. First, such violence to Britain, and draw a parallel between impedes the efficiency or effectiveness of reasons given for its continuation with development interventions; second, it is the reasons given by British health practi- ultimate obstacle to women's full and equal tioners to justify the practice of episiotomy participation in social, economic, and during childbirth. While both early political activities; and third, it is an offence marriage and FGM are acknowledged by against all notions of universal human feminist activists and practitioners in rights.