A CRISIS OF IDENTITY Remembering Stalingrad in Anglo-America by Gabriel J. Edelson A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honors Department of History University of Michigan March 27, 2006 Advised by: Professor Brian Porter In memory of Papa Bill and Edward Newmark, my own World War II heroes TABLE OF CONTENTS Index of Figures............................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... iii Introduction....................................................................................................................1 Chapter One: In the Heat of Battle ............................................................................. 9 Chapter One Images.............................................................................................. 42 Chapter Two: Cooling Down..................................................................................... 44 Chapter Two Images.............................................................................................. 81 Chapter Three: Through the Lens of History .......................................................... 88 Conclusion..................................................................................................................126 Bibliography................................................................................................................128 INDEX OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1.1: Stalingrad Fights On pamphlet cover......................................................... 42 Figure 1.2: Battle on the Volga pamphlet cover........................................................... 43 Figure 2.1: Portrait of a Red Army soldier in Dni i Nochi........................................ 81 Figure 2.2: A wounded Russian soldier in Dni i Nochi............................................. 81 Figure 2.3: Resolute Russian personnel in Dni i Nochi............................................. 81 Figure 2.4: A Russian attack in Dni i Nochi................................................................ 81 Figure 2.5: German pastoral life in Last Letters from Stalingrad................................. 82 Figure 2.6: German soldiers praying in Last Letters from Stalingrad.......................... 83 Figure 2.7: A mangled German limb in The Stalingrad Elegies.................................. 84 Figure 2.8: Stalingrad in ruins and mangled silhouettes in The Stalingrad Elegies ... 85 Figure 2.9: German prisoners and a German casualty in The Stalingrad Elegies ..... 85 Figure 2.10: German soldiers riding bicycles in The Onslaught................................. 86 Figure 2.11: A German soldier with Russian peasants in The Onslaught................. 86 Figure 2.12: German soldiers during leisure time in The Onslaught......................... 87 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the University of Michigan History Department for affording me this wonderful opportunity. Professor Brian Porter, my thesis advisor, was instrumental in the development of this project, from the initial brainstorming phase to the final, frantic moments. Somehow, he always had the answer I was looking for, and for that — as well as for his unlimited enthusiasm in editing, critiquing, and supporting — I am eternally grateful. Thanks to Adam Rottenberg for his careful copy-editing and useful suggestions, and to Donna Wessel Walker for insisting that I write a thesis in the first place. I would also like to express my gratitude to Mike Miller and Rohan Shetty for taking the time to read my rough drafts. Farina Mir and Jesse Hoffnung- Garskof were always helpful when I came to them with my concerns. I’m indebted to Marisa for her encouragement and for her patience during my all-nighters, and to my friends and family for their interest in the project. But most of all, I would like to thank my parents, Robin and Lori, and my brother, Alex, for supporting me, demanding to read the drafts, and pushing me to do my best. iii Introduction We often take the substance of memory for granted. But remembering an event is a process that, inherently, takes time. In different centuries, decades, years, or even months, a single instance can be represented in drastically divergent ways. Moreover, the meanings, emotions, and messages embedded in each event are dynamic and ever-changing. The Battle of Stalingrad, which proved to be a turning point toward Allied victory in World War II, is no different. Depending upon the time period and the cultures creating and consuming memories of the battle, the pivotal confrontation can be viewed in a wide range of contexts. Although the conflict took place in Russia and was limited to fighting between the Germans and their allies against the Russian Red Army, the battle’s legacy has permeated the English-speaking world, as well. An in-depth examination of Anglo-American representations of Stalingrad over time demonstrates that memory can also be profoundly geographical. Although no American or British troops participated in the events at Stalingrad, the battle and its outcome left an indelible mark on Western society. From World War II-era propaganda pamphlets and United States War Department films, to mountainous heaps of Cold War literature, to post-détente engagement with the battle and its significance, a near-obsession with Stalingrad is evident in the Anglophonic world. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from August 1942 until February 1943, was one of the bloodiest conflicts in history. In all, it is estimated that both parties suffered a total of more than two million casualties. In the end, the German Sixth Army, under Friedrich Paulus, surrendered after being trapped in a pocket by the 1 Red Army forces, led by Georgi Zhukov and Vassili Chuikov. Historians and military scholars generally agree that the Sixth Army’s defeat crushed any chance Hitler and the Germans had of winning World War II. After Stalingrad, the Wehrmacht’s military machine and the myth of Nazi invincibility were simultaneously and irreversibly smashed. Despite the spotless record and overwhelming power of the Sixth Army prior to Stalingrad, the Russian troops, initially on the defensive as victims of the German siege, fought back valiantly to defend the city on the Volga named after their leader. The ensuing Russian counteroffensive, launched on November 19, 1942, succeeded in breaking through German lines; eventually, the German troops were surrounded by an uplifted Red Army. Thus began the Russians’ slow process of starving, shooting, and waiting the Germans to death. The notorious Russian winter aided in the cause. When Paulus surrendered at the beginning of February along with roughly 90,000 of his troops, the Battle of Stalingrad was over. A mere 6,000 German soldiers eventually made it home to Germany. Unsurprisingly, Stalingrad became a prevalent topic in military and popular history. In Russia, the battle and the troops who fought in it were and still are remembered in heroic terms. In fact, Volgograd, as Stalingrad is known today, is considered one of Russia’s twelve “Hero Cities.” A giant statue of “Mother Motherland,” one of the most cherished symbols of Russian pride, was erected on Mamaev Kurgan, a hill where much of the fighting took place. In Russia, museums have been built to pay tribute to the battle and its participants. In Germany, on the other hand, Stalingrad came to be seen as a shameful black eye on the history of the 2 Third Reich.1 The battle became an occasion for Joseph Goebbels and the Nazi leadership to publish misleading propaganda lying to the German people about the nature of the fighting. Goebbels and Hitler even went so far as to insinuate that the Sixth Army had fought until the last man fell, completely closing their eyes to the 90,000 German troops who voluntarily surrendered in early February.2 Thus, Stalingrad and its import carried tremendous weight in both belligerent nations, which comes as no surprise due to the impact, scale, and dramatic nature of the battle. Most historians have tended to ignore, however, the ways in which Stalingrad has been represented in the English-speaking Western world. Though a dizzying amount of Stalingrad-related material is available in English, most scholars have tended to take its existence almost for granted, instead choosing to focus on the development of Stalingrad historiography in German- and Russian-language sources. Those historians who have dealt with English-language Stalingrad representations have tended to focus their attention on extremely narrow themes and time periods. In Victory at Stalingrad, for example, Geoffrey Roberts devotes the bulk of his discussion of Anglo-American Stalingrad references to the Cold War years, bypassing the World War II era and only briefly touching on post-Cold War changes.3 On the other hand, Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, in their War of Extermination, argue against the supposedly dominant “victimization” of the German Sixth Army in Stalingrad historiography, all the while ignoring a number of important examples of 1 For an investigation of German collective memory, see Koshar, Rudy. From Monuments to Traces. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. For a similar examination in a different national context, see Nora, Pierre. Realms of Memory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. 2 For more on Hitler and Goebbels distorting