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Transnational education and education sovereignty The Indonesia-US education relationship case study A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC POLICY at The University of Waikato by ANITA TRISNAWATI ABBOTT 2014 “…it, unfortunately, can be safely said there is no country in the world as important as this [Indonesia] about which we know so little.” Paul Wolfowitz, former United States Ambassador to Indonesia, Testimony to the Committee on International Relations, USA, House of Representatives, May 7, 1997 “Simple exchanges can break down walls between us, for when people come together and speak to one another and share a common experience, then their common humanity is revealed. We are reminded that we’re joined together by our pursuit of a life that’s productive and purposeful, and when that happens mistrust begins to fade and our smaller differences no longer overshadow the things that we share. And that’s where progress begins.” Barack Obama, remarks at student roundtable in Istanbul, Turkey, April 7, 2009 ii ABSTRACT This thesis examines the extent to which the educational sovereignty of a less developed state can be sustained when it considerably expands its involvement with transnational education. The thesis focuses on the case of Indonesia, which, since independence, has increasingly drawn on the education programmes of foreign providers, especially the US, as it has pursued its development agenda. In this context, the growth in the prevalence and importance of transnational education has led to questions about its impact on Indonesia. These questions are centred on whether transnational education is a vehicle through which Western education influences affect both the cultures and educational systems of non-Western states through the one-way transfer of knowledge. The case of the Indonesia-US education relationship provides a unique situation for the study of transnational educational exchanges and questions of educational sovereignty. In this case study, based on in-depth interviews with key actors in the negotiation of Indonesia-US education agreements and a comprehensive review of the official documents and other relevant literature, the extent to which Indonesia’s educational sovereignty has been sustained through a period which has seen the strengthening the Indonesia-US education relationship, is examined. The research finds that Indonesian enthusiasm for access to US education resources and opportunities is tempered by sensitivity to the risk of losing control over educational programmes. Negotiations over educational agreements are characterised by the assertion of equal status by Indonesian officials and confidence in their ability to retain control. This thesis concludes that sustaining educational sovereignty depends on the ability of the state to negotiate and renegotiate the terms of the relationship with provider states. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This thesis is a product of my long four year learning journey. There are many people whose assistance is invaluable and without whose assistance, it would not be possible for me to write this thesis: Special thanks to my husband, Maxwell, who has been very supportive. Words are not adequate to express my gratitude and appreciation to you. Thank you. Thank you for your love and patience. Thank you for being with me in good and bad times. I love you so much. Sincere thanks to my chief supervisor, Dr Alan Simpson, who has supported and encouraged me and stood by my side from the very beginning of my PhD candidature. Dr Simpson has been one of the sources of my inspiration. I really value not only his knowledge but also his wisdom. Sincere thanks to my co-supervisor, Dr Patrick Barrett, for his invaluable comments on this research. Thank you for challenging me to be a critical writer. Thank you for your time and patience. I also want to say thank you to my friends Kayanee Boonputh,and Soroush Vahnabi, who have been with me in good and bad times during my candidature. Thank you for encouraging me and standing by my side. Thanks also to Indi Akurugoda, and my officemate, John Kalu, for their practical support. I would also like to thank Professor Dov Bing and colleagues from the Department of Political Science and Public Policy, with whom I have had the opportunity to discuss my research and other areas, and/or to share overcoming obstacles during my PhD candidature: Handren Delan, Ibikunle Adeakin, Simon Grey, Mamadou Bah, Graeme Mackenzie, Stanley Jagger, Melanie Jones-Leaning, and Nyamamaa Avirmed. Sincere thanks to Chandra Pandey for his input and time. iv Thank you to Gillian O’Neil, Frances Douch, Heather Morrell, Jillene Bydder, and Jenny McGhee and for your assistance. Thanks are also due to all my respondents for their cooperation. Without them, this thesis could not be produced. My deepest gratitude also due to my mother, father, my late mother in law, my sister Indra, my brothers Rico and Daniel, and my aunty In, for supporting and encouraging me in so many ways. Last but not the least, I am very grateful to all my children: Isaac, Jacob, Joshua, and Rebecca, for their love and patience. Hamilton, 28th of August 2014 v DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my heavenly Father. He is the centre of my life. When I almost gave up and lost my strength, I called upon His name. He has fulfilled all my needs. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT ........................................................................................ iv DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xv LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................. xvi LIST OF APPENDICES ...................................................................................... xvii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................. xviii CHAPTER I ............................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background to the study .................................................................................. 1 1.2 Rationale ........................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Objectives ....................................................................................................... 11 1.4 Research design .............................................................................................. 12 1.5 Chapter organisation ...................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER II ......................................................................................................... 16 TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY: A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 16 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Transnational education ................................................................................ 16 2.2.1 Definitions of transnational education ...................................................... 16 2.2.2 The prevalence of transnational education ............................................... 23 2.2.3 Transnational education and parties involved .......................................... 28 2.2.4 Summary ...................................................................................................... 31 2.3 Educational sovereignty ................................................................................ 31 2.3.1 The concept of educational sovereignty ........................................... 32 2.3.2 Perspectives on educational sovereignty .......................................... 34 2.3.2.1 Transnational education and homogenisation processes ............. 37 2.3.2.2 Transnational education and the new imperialism ...................... 40 2.3.3 Alternative perspectives on education sovereignty ......................... 42 2.3.3.1 Transnational education and hybridisation processes .................. 43 2.3.3.2 Transnational education and the development of less-developed states ...........................................................................................................