http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. The gendering of sports news: An investigation into the production, content and reception of sports photographs of athletes in New Zealand newspapers. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Waikato By SUSAN SCOTT-CHAPMAN 2012 ABSTRACT This study investigates the selection, content, meaning and reception of photographs of sportswomen featured in New Zealand newspapers, in order to establish the relationship between media representations and cultural understandings of sportswomen and women’s sport. The study adopts a feminist cultural studies perspective and questions how photographs of sportswomen are constructed and perceived through dominant discourses of gender, sport and nationalism by media decision-makers and audiences alike, within contexts that are shaped by gender power relations and hierarchies. The first component of this tripartite study comprises two periods of participant observation and interviews conducted at a New Zealand media organization. The insights gained reveal how discourses of (sports) journalism impact on the choices media workers make about what constitutes sports news. Media practices, newsroom dynamics, organizational protocols, freedoms and constraints, and taken-for-granted work routines were all found to inform media workers’ decision making. Thus, journalistic discourses play a decisive role in constructing perceptions of newsworthiness that privilege a few professional men’s sports whilst marginalizing women’s sports and sportswomen, who are frequently stereotyped in representations where physical appearance and aesthetic beauty are emphasized rather than athleticism. The second component of this research comprises a systematic analysis of 2,787 sports photographs featured in four New Zealand newspapers during two distinct sample periods. The three main themes that emerged demonstrate that: ◙ Sports media reinforce an articulation of sport and masculinity; ◙ When sportswomen are featured, the media reinforce an articulation of sportswomen and femininity; and ◙ When major international sporting events occur, dominant discourses affirming an articulation of sports are momentarily disrupted, as the articulation of sport and nationalism creates space for greater coverage of sportswomen. However, despite the increased focus on sportswomen during the context of a major international sporting event, the content of photographs continues to ii reinforce discourses of femininity, emphasizing potential or actual medal winners and/or their physical attractiveness as sportswomen. A number of representative photographs of sportswomen are subjected to further in-depth evaluation using Peircean semiotic analysis, to establish how sports photographs convey gender differences. This analysis demonstrates how media draw attention to gender by using close-up photographs of sportswomen in tight fitting, body-hugging sportswear that is culturally defined as gender appropriate for women, which accentuates their physical attractiveness and femininity. The third component of this study involves in-depth interviews with seven elite New Zealand sportswomen, who describe their engagement with sports photographs and the challenges faced in determining what it means to be an athlete and a woman. Participants’ comments highlight how they often perceive photographs of themselves negatively, and in relation to the powerful discursive messages media convey about athleticism and gender, which associate sport with men and masculinity. Moreover, these media messages further result in sportswomen featuring in ambivalent and ambiguous ways, due to perceived contradictions in the articulation of sports with women and femininity. Conclusions are drawn on the powerful role discourses of sport play in media workers’ and audiences’ perceptions of sports newsworthiness, which are predominantly gender-based and gender-biased. Although discourses of nationalism encourage greater attention to medal winning sportswomen during major international sporting events, this focus continues to be constrained within discourses of femininity, and thus highlights those sports deemed appropriate for women, with emphasis given to sportswomen who embody idealized modes of femininity. Moreover, the findings of this research highlight the necessity for sports media studies to incorporate the voices of media workers and audiences, as their actions, reactions and perceptions reveal the real issues that they experience and what is important to them in producing and consuming sports news. This study therefore takes a step forward in highlighting crucial questions about the role of gender in shaping sporting representations as they are constructed and consumed in New Zealand. iii DEDICATION To my partner, Erica Scott, as a small token of my love and gratitude for your enthusiasm, encouragement, understanding and great patience at all times in this shared journey. And to my two beautiful children, Samantha and Daniel, both of whom were born in the course of this academic journey of discovery, thank you for allowing me the space to finish this “big peoples story-book”, and for your endless cuddles whilst I type. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although this doctoral thesis has, at times, seemed overwhelming, I have been fortunate enough to have a few positive, strong and supportive women helping to guide me through this new territory. Firstly, without the help and support of my two patient and encouraging supervisors, I would not have arrived at this destination. I would like to therefore acknowledge the role played by Toni Bruce, who inspired me to undertake this journey in the first place, and whose mentorship and friendship has been both productive and life changing. I also recognize the tremendous assistance and guidance of Carolyn Michelle, who has helped me expand my academic horizons, yet kept me firmly grounded at the same time. I am extremely grateful to you both. I also acknowledge those individuals at the University of Waikato, who have supported my studies, and the financial support provided through the University of Waikato Doctoral Scholarship. I am especially grateful to Heather Morrell, subject librarian, for her technical support and generosity in spirit; you have been a wonderful lifeline at a time when I felt I was drowning. Thank you. I would also like to acknowledge the participants in this study, the media workers and elite New Zealand sportswomen, who freely shared their time, knowledge and personal insights with me. I am indebted to you for allowing me the opportunity to understand the sports media through your eyes, and your participation in this study has helped me give rise to female voices, which are more frequently disregarded within the environments of sport and the media, and in sports research. Last, but by no means least, I would like to acknowledge my family overseas, whose love and support has helped me get to this stage. I am extremely grateful too to my extended whānau in New Zealand for listening to my theories and for feeding my mind and body, and quenching my thirst. And, to my friends overseas who believed that I could do it. You were right. I have! v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................. ii Dedication ............................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ v Table of contents .................................................................................................. vi List of figures ...................................................................................................... xiii List of tables ........................................................................................................ xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Theoretical framework and methodological approach ................ 15 Overview of the theoretical framework and underpinning assumptions .......... 15 Culture and cultural studies ............................................................................... 18 Cultural studies theorizing ............................................................................ 19 The encoding / decoding model..................................................................... 22 Preferred reading and preferred meaning .................................................... 25 Hegemony and cultural studies ..................................................................... 26 Masculine hegemony and sport ....................................................................