ISLAMIC RADICALIZATION IN BELGIUM Ms. Sarah Teich, (Research Assistant, ICT) February 2016 ABSTRACT Belgium has become a major hotbed for radicalization in Europe. At least 380 Belgians have travelled to Syria as foreign fighters, giving Belgium the largest number of jihadists per capita at 33.9 fighters per one million residents. Radicalized Belgian Muslims are significantly involved not only in terrorist attacks in Belgium, but throughout Europe. What has caused Belgium to become this fertile a ground for Islamic radicalization? This paper points to the low levels of employment, high levels of discrimination, low educational achievement, poor integration, and inconsistent governmental funding pervasive among the Belgian Muslim community. These poor demographic realities of the Belgian Muslim community might be significant in providing a fertile ground for radical Islamic parties and organizations to influence and recruit. This paper analyzes Islamic radicalization in Belgium. The first part of this paper examines Belgian-Muslim demographics, including population, integration, political participation, and organization. Then, Belgian Islamic radicalization is examined through the theoretical frameworks of both McCauley and Moskalenko and Social Movement Theory. To conclude, this paper considers governmental responses and recommendations for future preventative actions. * The views expressed in this publication are solely those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT). 2 Table of Contents MUSLIMS IN BELGIUM: BACKGROUND, DEMOGRAPHICS AND ORGANIZATIONS .........3 Population and Immigration ..................................................................................................................... 3 Muslim Population in Belgium ............................................................................................................. 3 Muslim Immigration into Belgium ........................................................................................................ 5 Dispersion of Muslims in Belgium ........................................................................................................ 8 Integration and Religious Freedom ........................................................................................................ 10 Integration of Muslims in Belgium ...................................................................................................... 10 Religious Freedom and Governmental Funding ................................................................................. 12 Employment, Housing, and Education .................................................................................................... 14 Employment & Housing Discrimination ............................................................................................. 14 Educational Achievement .................................................................................................................... 15 Islamic Schools ................................................................................................................................... 16 Political Involvement .............................................................................................................................. 17 Muslim Political Participation ............................................................................................................ 17 Islamist Parties in Belgium ................................................................................................................. 18 Mosques, Islamic Centers, and Organizations ....................................................................................... 23 Mosques and Islamic Centers ............................................................................................................. 23 Organizations ...................................................................................................................................... 26 RADICALIZATION: A THEORIETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................... 30 Defining Radicalization .......................................................................................................................... 30 Mechanisms of Radicalization – Existing Theories and Models ............................................................ 33 McCauley and Moskalenko: Pyramid Model & Mechanisms of Radicalization ................................ 33 Social Movement Theory ..................................................................................................................... 35 RADICALIZATION IN BELIGUM ............................................................................................... 37 Radicalization Theory – Applied............................................................................................................. 37 Demographics ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Strained Environmental Conditions .................................................................................................... 38 Organizations: Framing the Grievances ............................................................................................ 40 Availability of Mechanisms / Pathways to Radicalization .................................................................. 41 Select Cases ............................................................................................................................................ 42 GOVERNMENT RESPONSES ...................................................................................................... 44 Limiting Islamist Political Involvement .................................................................................................. 45 Banning Extremist Organizations – Sharia4Belgium ............................................................................. 45 Banning Headscarves ............................................................................................................................. 46 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ........................................................................................................ 47 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 50 3 MUSLIMS IN BELGIUM: BACKGROUND, DEMOGRAPHICS AND ORGANIZATIONS Population and Immigration Muslim Population in Belgium Belgian law and society are generally respectful of religious liberty1. Knowing this, it should perhaps be unsurprising that it hosts a large Muslim population – the second highest per capita in Europe2. Roughly 6% of the Belgian population is identified as Muslim3, making Islam the most prevalent minority religion in the country4. The other minority religious affiliations in Belgium include non-Catholic Christians, Muslims, Jews, and Buddhists5. Making up the bulk of the population, are the Roman Catholics (estimated at 50% of the Belgian population), the unaffiliated (32%), and the atheists (9%)6. It is important to emphasize that many of these and forthcoming numbers and figures are approximations. The Belgium government does not request religious affiliation information in a national census7, affecting the availability of reliable demographic data on Belgian Muslims. 1 “Religious Freedom in Belgium,” Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/religious-freedom-in-belgium. 2 Soeren Kern, “The Islamization of Belgium and the Netherlands in 2013,” Gatestone Institute, January 13, 2014, http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4129/islamization-belgium-netherlands. 3 Ibid. 4 “Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers,” Pew Forum, December 18, 2012, http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/. 5 “Religious Freedom in Belgium,” Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/religious-freedom-in-belgium. 6 Ibid. 7 “Islam in Belgium,” Euro-Islam.info, http://www.euro-islam.info/country-profiles/belgium/. 4 Religious Composition of Belgium Non-Catholic Christians, Jews, and Buddhists Roman Catholic Unaffiliated 3% 32% Atheist Unaffiliated 9% Atheist Minority Religions 9% Muslims Muslims Roman Catholic 6% 50% Non-Catholic Christians, Jews, and Buddhists The Muslim population of Belgium has been growing rapidly, almost doubling in the past ten years. In 2005, Muslims numbered 364,0008 (out of a population total of 10,478,6179): comprising roughly 3.5% of the Belgian population10. In 2010, Muslims numbered 630,00011 and comprised roughly 5.9% of the Belgian population12. In 2014, Muslims numbered 650,000 and comprised roughly 6% of the Belgian population13. 8 “Belgium,” Frontline, January 25, 2005, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/map/be.html. 9 “Population, total,” World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?page=1. 10 “Belgium,” Frontline, January 25, 2005, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/map/be.html. 11 “Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers,” Pew Forum, December 18, 2012, http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/. 12 “Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages,” Pew Forum, December 18, 2012, http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/.