A political ecology study of forest wilderness in the Olympic Peninsula (USA) and Tasmania (Australia). Whitney Elizabeth Woods B.Sc. (Anthropology) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2019 School of Social Science i Abstract This thesis presents an analysis of wilderness protected areas as domestic territorialisation processes in the USA and Australia. It argues that the process of building wilderness territory has an iterative effect of mediating human/nature relationships through changing access to forest resources. Philosophers, historians, and writers have sought to answer the question of humanity’s place in nature through the idea of wilderness. In both the USA and Australia, narratives range from wilderness as an idea and a place that is terrible and indifferent, pristine and Edenic, playground and park, and fortress of biodiversity. This thesis seeks to contribute to understanding how the concept of wilderness currently inhabits the political sphere in the USA and Australia. It responds to calls in the fields of anthropology and geography to increase the involvement of the social sciences in conservation science, and arises from gaps in previous literature on the political ecology of developed countries. The thesis focuses on forest wilderness on the Olympic Peninsula, USA and in Tasmania, Australia, to explore how wilderness protected areas change and mediate peoples’ access to forest resources, how wilderness and World Heritage intersect to mediate access, and how wilderness protected areas mediate human/nature relationships. The thesis considers wilderness as a territorialisation process, a set of policies or strategies used to assert authority over resources, and behaviour in relation to those resources, within a given area. Through examples in debates over wilderness legislation and management in the two case-study sites, the thesis analyses the ways in which wilderness is used to assert physical and narrative control over geographic areas by both state and non-state actors. It traces the processes of territorialisation of forests in a Global North context, concluding that wilderness conservation constitutes a form of conceptual re-territorialisation. It explores the role of the World Heritage system in this process, concluding that World Heritage is used as a tool for domestic territorial control over wilderness resources. The thesis then builds a case for political wilderness, an iterative process by which people’s access to forest resources changes human/nature narratives, and vice versa. The thesis interrogates how discourse from conservation science and heritage-making is used by the nation-state, as well as non-state actors, to build and maintain legitimacy over resource access. It concludes with an outline of opportunities for future research on wilderness, territorialisation in developed countries, and natural heritage. ii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my Higher Degree by Research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. iii Publications included in this thesis Woods, WE 2018, Framing Wilderness as Heritage: A Study of Negotiating Heritage in Environmental Conflict, Heritage & Society, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 147-170. DOI: 10.1080/2159032X.2018.1491756 iv Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis No manuscripts submitted for publication. Other publications during candidature Journal articles Woods, WE 2018, Framing Wilderness as Heritage: A Study of Negotiating Heritage in Environmental Conflict, Heritage & Society, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 147-170. DOI: 10.1080/2159032X.2018.1491756 Conference papers Woods, WE 2017, ‘“Roads are made for Horses and Men of Business”: Exploring the paradox of wilderness tourism in Tasmania, Australia through the work of Thoreau’, paper presented at the annual meeting for the Society for Applied Anthropology, Santa Fe, USA. Woods, WE 2015, ‘Contests for knowledge in forest policy development: an anthropological perspective on forest wilderness on the Olympic Peninsula, U.S.A.’, paper published in the programme for the XIV World Forestry Congress, Durbin, South Africa. Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others. v Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree No works submitted towards another degree have been included in this thesis. Research Involving Human or Animal Subjects Human Ethics approval ref. ‘RHD6/2014’, School of Social Science Ethical Review Panel, 9 October, 2014. Human Ethics approval ref. ‘RHD6/2014 amended’, School of Social Science Ethical Review Panel, 06 May, 2015. vi Acknowledgements I am grateful to my academic supervisors Ian Lilley, David Trigger and Richard Martin, who provided me with so much guidance through the development of this thesis. I thank them for sharing their ideas and for challenging me, and for being patient as I pursued other career advancement alongside this research as a part-time student. I am very thankful to Ian Lilley for encouraging me to undertake a PhD, for offering to supervise my work and for supporting my development. Thank you as well to Celmara Pocock at the University of Southern Queensland for guidance and support throughout my candidature. Celmara has been an inspiring and motivational presence and I am grateful for her confidence in my work and for pushing me further contribute to academia. Thank you to the Faculty of Science at The University of Queensland, who supported me to complete this thesis. Ian Gentle, Christine Beveridge, Joe Grotowski, Patrick Testa, Hannah Hartig and many others felt the impact of my time away from work for data collection and writing. I am grateful to my parents Rob and Jill Woods for always supporting me and pushing me in my academic students and achievements. I thank Peter Adams for his support in this endeavour for the last five years. Thank you for agreeing to learn more than you ever wanted to know about the social sciences. My thanks as well to Melissa Graciosa and Lucy Hurrey for their companionship and patience on the road, for many miles walked together and nights slept in the cold. I am also thankful for Uri Shaanan and his diligent review of my work, and for offering his assistance at every turn. More than anyone, I am thankful for the generous people of the Olympic Peninsula and Tasmania, who took time to speak with me and work with me over the last five years. I am so very grateful for your frank and insightful thoughts, warm welcomes, and hot cups of tea in very cold places. Thank you to the School of Social Science for your financial and logistical support for this project and for providing a happy environment for completing my studies. vii Financial support This research was supported by The University of Queensland School of Social Science student bursary. The University of Washington Olympic Natural Resources Center, Forks, Washington, provided logistical support for this research. Keywords wilderness, forest, political ecology, territorialisation, natural resources, natural heritage, World Heritage, Tasmania, Olympic Peninsula viii Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 160403, Social and Cultural Geography, 40% ANZSRC code: 160104, Social and Cultural Anthropology, 40% ANZSRC code: 160605, Environmental Politics, 20% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification Allows for categorisation of the thesis according to the field of research. FoR code: 1604, Human Geography, 50% FoR code: 1601, Anthropology, 50% ix Whate'er the theme, the Maiden sang As if her song could have no ending; I saw her singing at her work, And o'er the sickle bending;— I listened, motionless and still; And, as I mounted up the hill, The music in my heart I bore, Long after it was heard no more. - excerpted from ‘The Solitary Reaper’, William Wordsworth, 1807 For all the wildernesses that delight us with their songs, though they may only linger in our hearts. x Table of Contents