EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES OF TIBETAN LAMA TRAINING By M a r g a r e t E v e l y n M i l l e r TABLE OF CONTENTS C h a p t e r ige I. IN T R O D U C T IO N ................................................................... 88 A. Limitations ................................................................... 181 B. Definition of terms .................................................... 18^ C. Purpose of the Study ................................................ 192 II. CRITIQUE OF SOURCES ................................................ 194 A. Published Sources: their Utility and Limitations • • 194 B. Field Observation of the Writer .......................... ... 202 III. THE LAMAHOOD ............................................................... 204 A. The Importance of the Lama in the Life of the People 2T—I 2 7 B. The Variety o f Careers in the Lamahood ............... 1 1 2 C. The Qualifications for Entrance ................................. 222 5 2 8 IV. THE LAMASERY ............................................................... 22 A. Its Support ............................................................... ... 22 B. Its Discipline ............................................................... 22 C. Its O rganization............................................................ V. THE CURRICULUM ............................................................ 230 A. Texts and Books .................................................... ... 230 B. Courses of Study ........................................................ 233 C. Subject Matter ............................................................ 234 VI. THE TRAINING OF THE LAMAS .................................. 241 A. General Methods of Learning ................................. 2：41 B. The Role of the T eacher............................................. ：46 C. Esoteric Aspects of T raining ................................. ... 2：50 V II. CONCLUSION ....................................................................... 2：55 A. The Progress of the Individual in the Lama Training . 255 B. Some Limitations in the Lama System ...................... 259 BIBLIOGRAPHY 262 187 List of Abbreviations : The following abbreviations will be used : a. for reference to books and pamphlets TP (& P Bell, Tibet Past and Present L of L Macdonald, The Land of the Lama, and Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas Oxf. Pamph. Macdonald, Tibet. Oxford Pamphlets on Indian Affairs，No. 30. All other works are abbreviated by using the key word or words of the title. b. for reference to periodicals A r t c^5 L e t A r t and 'Letters A.s. Hor. Asian Horton A s. R. Asiatic Review Bib, Sac. Bibliotheca Sacra BL Mag. Blackwoods Magazine East. E. Eastern World For. A ff. Foreign Affairs Geog. 7. Geographical Journal Geog. Mag. Geographical Magazine IRM International Review of Missions JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society J-ASB Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal JB^AS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society JRCAS Journal of the Kqyal Central Asiatic Society JW CB BS Journal of the West China Border Research Society LA Lwmg Age MRW^ Missionary Review of the World N G National Geographic Magazine NH 'Natural History Pac. A.ff. "Pacific Affairs SW JA n Southwestern Journal of Anthropology Spec. Spectator UNW United Nations World CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Limitations The Tibetan religion is composed o f many complex factors each of which offer ample material for an extensive analysis. To avoid lengthy explanations, statements of Tibetan religious doctrines have been made as brief as possible and have been oversimplified. In a general study such as this, it is possible to give only a summary of the more important phases of ]ama training. For example，the practice of meditation is an important aspect of all higher training, but this is a subject to which some authors devote many chapters of discussion. Here it can only be mentioned briefly. The present writer does not attempt to give a final or complete an­ alysis o f the Tibetan religious philosophy which forms the basis o f the out­ ward manifestations of lama training. Where religion and education are as closely interwoven as in Tibet, such an analysis should eventually be made to achieve a more complete understanding of Tibetan concepts. But the subject of Tibetan religious philosophy is of such magnitude that to attempt to present it in this paper, along with a discussion of the more outward aspects o f lama training, seems injudicious. It is my sincere hope that in the future someone may present a detailed study or this important background of Tibetan education and life.1) This paper proposes to deal only with such technical questions as, for example: “ How do the Tibetans teach their lamas?” “ What varying methods are used in their religious training?” “ What sort of educational facilities do they have? ” “In what kind of sur­ roundings do they teach and study?，，“ What type of curriculum do they 1 ) A brief but excellent general analysis of the Tibetan religion is found in EkvalTs “ Five Unlversals of Tibetan Religion，” Oriens、v o l.6 (1953)，pp. 334-343. The present writer heartily agrees with Ekvall that the books on Tibetan religion are not as helpful for a general study as one might expect. Some books show little evidence of careful analysis and often where the study is detailed, there is an over emphasis on the importance of some phase of Tibetan religion. The unwary reader who expects to get a general picture may thus be left instead with a lopsided or distorted impression. There are still gaps that need to be filled, both in unexplored areas ot in­ quiry and in tying together the existing information into a composite picture. The above mentioned article provides a valuable contribution in this direction. Ct. also Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China，1940, pp. 220-221, on the need of further study of Tibetan religion and society. MARGARET EVELYN MILLER 189 have ? ” etc. Even the answers to these questions seem inadequate in some cases because of the lack o f available information, but at least it is possible to obtain a general picture of Tibetan teaching methods and the more obvious ways in which these influence their ideas o f education. Some Tibetans, particularly in border areas have had opportunity to attend Chinese, Indian or missionary schools. This study is not concerned with the influence of such institutions and proposes to deal only with Tibetan forms of training. Any comparison of the Tibetan religion with other types of Buddhism is entirely omitted as outside the scope of the present subject. B. Definition of Terms Tibet proper or political Tibet forms only one segment of the actual Tibetan population. Such areas as Sikkim, Ladak, and Tibetan populated areas of adjoining Chinese provinces provide religious training similar or almost identical w ith Tibet proper. Including • this wider area, which is sometimes called ethnological Tibet,11 makes possible a more complete dis­ cussion of the lama training. Some authors object to the use of the word “ lama ” as a general term to denote the Tibetan priest.2) The training of the priesthood of Tibet is of a unique type and therefore the term “ monk ” or “ priest ” to describe a member o f a Tibetan religious Order does not seem entirely advantageous or accurate.3) It seems preferable to use a name linked w ith the system itself. A few authors have suggested using “ drapa ” ，4> a Tibetan expression 1 ) Cf. Sir Charles Bell, Tibet Past and Present, 1924，p . 18; R. Ekvall, Cultttral delations on the Kansu-Tibetan Border, 1939, pp. 9-10; J. E. ElJam, The Keligion of Tibety 1927， pp. 33-34; A. Guibaut, Tibetan Venture, 1947，p . 14; J. Hanson-Lowe, ‘‘ A Journey Along the Chinese-Tibetan Border,” Geog. v o l.95 (May, 1940)，p. 360 ; D. Kachru, “ Tibet,” India Quarterly，v o l.6 (1950) ， p . 130; O. Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China，New York: Am. Geog. Soc.，1940, p. 208; A. C. Li, “ The Tibetan Family in its Relation to Religion,” A.s. Hor.，vol 2 (1949)，p. 25; in Ferm, Forgotten Religions’ 1950, p. 253; A. Migot, Tibetan Marches, 1955, p . 1 0 1 ;B. D. Miller, “ A Selective Survey of Literature on Tibet,” A m . Pol. Sci. Rep.t vol. 47 (1953), p. 1135; G. Sand­ berg, Tibet and the Tibetans、1906, p. 96; N. Smith, Golden Doorway to Tibet, 1949，p . 115; F. K . Ward, Assam Adventurey London: Jonathan Cape, 1941，pp. 111-112. 2) Cf. Bell, Keligion of Tibet, 1931，p. xvi, (note on lama); A. David-Neel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet ^ 1932，p . 1 1 ; M. Pallis, Peaks and llamas, 1940，p. 80; H. E_ Richardson, “ Review of Cammann’s Trade Through the Himalayas, JKC^4S9 v o l.39, p. 285; Sandberg, op. cit” pp. 127­ 128. 3) Cf. David-Neel, Magic, pp. 103-104; Li, in Ferm, 1950，p. 254; Y. P. Mei, “ Among the Living Buddhas,” A sia，v o l.40 (1940)，p. 143. C£. also Chapter III, note 65. 4) For example Pallis, op. cit.，p. 80, also David-Neel, Magic, p . 1 1 . (But David-Neel，s own usage is not always consistent). Ct. “ gravapa” in H. A. Jaschke, Tibetan- 'English Dictionary^ 190 EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES OF TIBETAN LAMA TRAINING for any priest except those o f high rank and degree. But it is considered uncomplimentary to call a high ranking priest a “ drapa ” 一 he is called a “ lama ”,1) Since there is no Tibetan expression to specify a priest of un­ known or unstated rank, it seems preferable to use the complimentary form for a general usage. “ Lama ” as a general term for a Tibetan priest, has wide acceptance and usage among foreigners writing about Tibet2) and it is not unknown in a general connotation even among Tibetans.3) “ Lamasery，，，denoting the place of training ot the lamas, and ‘‘ lama- ism ，，，designating the Tibetan religion are not Tibetan words, but merely coined by outsiders. A few authors dislike the term，“ lamaism ” and say it is derogatory.4) It is used m this study solely as a name to differentiate a distinct and unique type of Buddhism，5) and not at all m the sense of an expression o f contempt. Lamaism is a mixture of Bon, the pre-Buddhist London : Kegan Paul, 1934，p.