Transforming theory and practice of environmental governance – A case study of Ayubia National Park, Pakistan by Mohsin Farooque A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Planning Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2011 © Mohsin Farooque 2011 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract Parks and protected areas are long-regarded as effective measures for conservation of biodiversity. More recently, they are also recognized as a means to provide social and economic benefits and indefinite ecological and environmental services, particularly to local communities. Historically, parks and protected areas have been managed through an exclusive model, whereby local communities are regarded as a threat to biodiversity preservation. More recently, this model is being replaced by an inclusive model which regards local communities as important stakeholders and partners in sustainable resource management. Like other developing countries of the world, Pakistan is switching to the inclusive model, mostly under the influence and pressure of the world community and external donors. This thesis focuses on the Ayubia National Park (ANP) in Pakistan. This park is managed by the provincial government of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province through the Wildlife Department. At the same time, the park falls within the jurisdiction of the Forest Department by virtue of its being located within reserve forest. Until 1996, the traditional exclusive conservation model was predominant. Under the influence of the European Union (EU) and IUCN – The World Conservation Union – the inclusive approach has been tested in the park since 1996. Accordingly, the first park management plan was prepared with the active collaboration of all local communities, the WWF-Pakistan, and the Forest and Wildlife Departments. The planning document was designed to promote co-management and incorporate the viewpoints of all the local communities in park management. Following termination of EU funding, the plan was implemented, but without active involvement of the local communities. Evidence presented in this thesis shows that, due to strict management in line with the traditional exclusive conservation model, park resources have improved to a certain extent. However, failure in implementing the mutually agreed planning document has resulted in local communities developing serious mistrust against the Wildlife Department. This thesis suggests that short-term improvements in park resources mask the persistent problems of poor governance in the study area. The thesis shows that marked differences between the Forest and Wildlife Departments, and between local communities and the concerned government agencies provide a poor foundation for long-term sustainable resource management. Thus ineffective governance lies at the heart of resource management problems within the park. iii The thesis recommends that in order to effectively address the current park-people conflicts a state-centric co-management model should be pursued. Such a hybrid model will have the strengths of both the exclusive and inclusive models. The thesis further presents a framework focusing on effective environmental governance, effective management and effective planning. Importantly, the thesis argues that for effective environmental governance to be realized, the management approach must be place-based and site- specific. Thus, the thesis recommends both micro and macro level environmental governance measures. Such measures can be undertaken through proper institutional reforms that are undertaken at three distinct levels: legislative reforms, educational reforms and organizational reforms. iv Acknowledgements I am thankful to Almighty Allah, the Magnificent and the most Merciful for granting me the confidence and enabling me to successfully write this research thesis. I salute my sincere colleague, Corrine Cash, for introducing me to her husband – Dr. Larry A. Swatuk. I am indebted to Dr. Swatuk, who is not only my supervisor but also a friend, a mentor and a guru. His persistent guidance and active support helped me in completing this Ph.D. I am also grateful to him for helping me in overcoming hardships, energizing me, presenting novel ideas, suggesting wide body of literature and repeatedly reviewing my thesis. Besides him, I am extremely thankful to my advisory committee including Dr. Geoff Wall, Dr. Stephen Murphy, Dr. Derek Armitage and external examiner Dr. John FitzGibbon for their review and critique. My extended thanks go to Dr. Pierre Filion, Dr. Roger Suffling and Ms. Edie Cardwell of School of Planning. I want to express my gratitude to all who took out their time and assisted and/or participated in this research study, whether they are from WWF-Pakistan, Wildlife Department or local communities of Lahur Kas, Mallach, Pasala - Toheedabad, Riala, Darwaza, Kundla, Khaun, and Moorti – Kuzagali. I sincerely acknowledge the assistance of the officers from the Wildlife Department of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan, for encouraging me to undertake this Ph.D. project and facilitating the research in Ayubia National Park. In this regard, I am grateful to Dr. Muhammad Mumtaz Malik, Saeed uz Zaman, Mubarik Ali Shah, Safdar Ali Shah, Muhammad Arif Orakzai, Muhammad Anwar, Raham Dad, Anwar Afridi and Muhammad Tahir. Special thanks to all those who provided me with their unconditional support, reduced my worries and helped me in focusing on my studies. They include M/S Muhammad Arif Arbab, Ihsan Ghani, Zahur Ahmad Khan Khalil, Sahibzada Saeed Ahmad, Riaz Mahsod, Arshad Majeed Mohmand, Shaukat Ali Yousafzai, Masood Ahmad, Shoukatullah and Safdar Ali Shah. I acknowledge their selfless help from the core of my heart. Credit also goes to Babar Shahzad Tahirkheli, Aamir Khalil, Khalid Mehmood and Jeffrey Squire for their help in transcribing, reviewing and guidance. My special thanks go to my family including my father and mother who always remember me in their prayers and share my worries and to my compassionate wife and caring daughters Amna, Ayesha, Aleena and Ayla who always stood by me in hard times, believed in me, encouraged me and become my sources of inspiration. Ghulam Habib, v Zahid Khan and Ambreen Khan, I will always be thankful to each of you for your support at times when it was badly needed. In the end, I want to express gratitude to all my teachers and instructors at Cadet College Kohat, Faculty of Agriculture (Gomal University), Pakistan Forest Institute (Peshawar University), Sindh Development Studies Centre (Sindh University), Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (University of Kent), National Centre of Excellence in Geology (University of Peshawar). Without their help and support, I would have never achieved this distinction. vi Dedication Ph.D. - From a dream to reality, my endeavours and pace of academic work were compromised by three heart surgeries of my youngest daughter, Ayla Mohsin in Sick Kids Hospital Toronto - our second home in Canada for quite some time. However, it was through the help, support and encouragement of our friends, colleagues and professionals of School of Planning, University of Waterloo and Sick Kids Hospital, which gave me an opportunity to turn those dreams, which I nurtured for decades in to a simple reality. I therefore dedicate this attempt to the wonderful friends, colleagues and professionals of School of Planning and Sick Kids Hospital. No words of thanks will ever be enough to acknowledge their help. Mohsin Farooque From dream to reality, my endeavours and pace of academic work was vii Table of Contents Author’s declaration ................................................................................................................ ii Abstract .................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. v Dedication ............................................................................................................................. vii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures....................................................................................................................... xiv List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ xvii List of Acronyms ................................................................................................................... xix Chapter 1 Context, rationale and scope .................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Rationale ....................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Purpose statement ........................................................................................................ 4 1.4 Research questions