Adapting to Climate Change: A Sensitivity Analysis of National Adaptation Programmes of Action Towards Women by Sotiria Anagnostou A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved April 2015 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Netra Chhetri, Chair Edward Hackett Ann Hibner-Koblitz ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2015 ABSTRACT The most recent decision of the 2012 Conference of the Parties (CoP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recognizes that in order to create climate policies that respond to the different needs of men and women a more balanced representation of women from developed and developing countries is needed. National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) provide a process for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to “identify priority activities that respond to their urgent and immediate needs to respond to impending threats from climate change.” Since 1997, the United Nations has agreed to gender mainstreaming- a globally accepted strategy for promoting gender equality by ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities in the all UN systems. Due to the gender division of labor climate change will affect men and women differently. Policies and programs that do not take into account the needs and capacities of both men and women will fail to be effective and may worsen preexisting conditions that historically favor men. My research investigates the UN’s commitment towards gender mainstreaming. More specifically my objective is to understand how and to what extent the NAPAs from 49 countries integrate a gender dimension into their national climate adaptation policy. For the purpose of this research, I consider three interrelated issues: whether gender-specific needs and vulnerabilities were identified by the NAPA; if these needs and vulnerabilities were addressed by proposed adaptation projects; and in what forms women participated in the formulation of the NAPA. The scope of this research begins with an overview assessment of 49 NAPAs followed by a comparative i assessment of NAPAs from four countries- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Maldives, and Niger, and an in-depth analysis of Nepal’s NAPA, which incorporates field study. Nepal was chosen as a focus country due to its identification as being both inclusive and gender sensitive. The method of inquiry consists of both quantitative and qualitative analysis, utilizing the quantitative measures of HDI and GII and the qualitative methods of content analysis and case study. The findings suggest that the response to the gender dimensions of climate change found in adaptation policies vary widely among the LDCs and the level of response is dependent upon social, cultural, economic, and political contexts within each LDC. Additionally, I find that gender mainstreaming techniques have not been fully integrated into the NAPA policy and processes, and have not been effective at promoting gender equality through adaptation strategies. Recommendations are provided in order to help mainstream gender in NAPAs as they continue to be developed, revised, and implemented. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation was completed with tremendous support from my professors, family and friends. I wish to extend my heartfelt gratitude to them: I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Netra Chhetri for his continued support throughout my doctoral studies. His patience, guidance, and dedication enabled me to succeed. Ann Hibner-Koblitz, who has given me valuable insights and encouragement, for which I am truly grateful. Edward Hackett, whose mentorship and belief in me became a source of strength during times when I doubted my own capabilities. His dedication to his students has been a gigantic source of motivation and I am forever grateful to have worked alongside him. My best friends, Erin Fay, Meg Foraker and Whitney White, who have always believed in me and have remained by my side through the best of times and the worst of times. I would like to thank my family for their prayers, commitment to excellence, and patience. My mother, Robbie, is my greatest supporter and I am forever grateful to be blessed with her. My sister, Natalie, is a constant source of motivation and never fails to help me when I need her the most. My father, Manolis, for his continued support. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ viii LIST OF ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................. .......................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................... 1 Mainstreaming Gender into Climate Adaptation Strategies .................... 5 NAPAs and the UNFCCC ........................................................................ 9 Synthesis ................................................................................................. 13 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................... 15 Adaptation ............................................................................................... 16 Vulnerability ........................................................................................... 24 Adaptive Capacity ................................................................................... 30 Vulnerability, Adaptation and Development .......................................... 34 Gender Discrimination ........................................................................... 39 Synthesis ................................................................................................. 51 3 METHODS ...................... .............................................................................................. 53 Quantitative Methods .............................................................................. 54 Qualitative Methods ................................................................................ 60 Feminist Methodologies ......................................................................... 63 iv CHAPTER Page Synthesis ................................................................................................. 66 4 A GENDER SCAN OF 49 NAPAS: VULNERABILITY, PARTICIPATION, AND EQUALITY PROGRAMMING ................................................................................... 68 Methods ................................................................................................... 72 Organization of NAPAs .......................................................................... 75 In-depth Analysis of NAPAs with Regards to Women’s Concerns ...... 78 Synthesis ............................................................................................... 102 5 GENDER SENSITIVITY AND NAPAS: LESSONS LEARNED FROM AFGHANISTAN, BANGLADESH, MALDIVES AND NIGER ............................ 106 Methods ................................................................................................. 108 Afghanistan ........................................................................................... 112 Bangladesh ............................................................................................ 121 Maldives ................................................................................................ 128 Niger ...................................................................................................... 135 Synthesis ............................................................................................... 142 6 GENDER AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION: A CASE STUDY OF NEPAL’S NAPA .......................................................................................................... 147 Methods ..................................................................................................... 153 Sector Specific Vulnerabilities to Climate Change .................................. 155 Political Vulnerabilities to Climate Change ............................................. 177 Recommendations ..................................................................................... 192 v CHAPTER Page Synthesis .................................................................................................... 204 7 CONCLUSIONS AND MOVING FORWARD ........................................................ 210 REFERENCES....... ............................................................................................................. 219 APPENDIX A LIST OF LEADING AUTHORS OF NAPA ........................................................... 244 B INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 246 C NEPAL NAPA GENDER TABLE ............................................................................. 250 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1-1 Mitigation and Adaptation Responses to Climate Change .................................... 10 2-1 Scope and Scale of Adaptation to Climate Change ................................................ 19 2-2 “Top-down” and “bottom-up” Approaches used to Inform Climate Adaptation Policy ....................................................................................................