P1: JZZ/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543Agg.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 18:34 Social Motivation Conscious and Unconscious Processes Edited by JOSEPH P. FORGAS University of New South Wales KIPLING D. WILLIAMS Macquarie University SIMON M. LAHAM University of New South Wales v P1: JZZ/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543Agg.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 18:34 published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB22RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon´ 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org C Cambridge University Press 2005 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2005 Printed in the United States of America Typeface Palatino 10/12 pt. System LATEX2ε [TB] A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Social motivation : conscious and unconscious processes / edited by Joseph P. Forgas, Kipling D. Williams, Simon M. Laham. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-83254-3 1. Motivation (Psychology) – Social aspects. I. Forgas, Joseph P. II. Williams, Kipling D. III. Laham, Simon M. BF503.S65 2004 153.8 – dc22 2004043509 ISBN 0 521 83254 3 hardback vi P1: JZZ/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543Agg.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 18:34 Contents About the Editors page xi List of Contributors xiii Preface xvii 1 Social Motivation: Introduction and Overview 1 Joseph P. Forgas, Kipling D. Williams, and Simon M. Laham part i. conscious and unconscious social motivation: general issues 2 Multiple Goals, Optimal Motivation, and the Development of Interest 21 Judith M. Harackiewicz, Amanda M. Durik, and Kenneth E. Barron 3 The Machine in the Ghost: A Dual Process Model of Defense Against Conscious and Unconscious Death-Related Thought 40 Tom Pyszczynski, Jeff Greenberg, and Sheldon Solomon 4 Habits and the Structure of Motivation in Everyday Life 55 Wendy Wood and Jeffrey M. Quinn 5 Motivation in Social Settings: Studies of Effort-Related Cardiovascular Arousal 71 Guido H. E. Gendolla and Rex A. Wright 6Reflection and Impulse as Determinants of Conscious and Unconscious Motivation 91 Fritz Strack and Roland Deutsch 7 The Role of Motivation in the Unconscious: How Our Motives Control the Activation of Our Thoughts and Shape Our Actions 113 Steven J. Spencer, Steven Fein, Erin J. Strahan, and Mark P. Zanna vii P1: JZZ/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543Agg.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 18:34 viii Contents part ii. social motivation: cognitive and affective implications 8 From Evolved Motives to Everyday Mentation: Evolution, Goals, and Cognition 133 Steven L. Neuberg, Douglas T. Kenrick, Jon K. Maner, and Mark Schaller 9 Automatic Goal Inference and Contagion: On Pursuing Goals One Perceives in Other People’s Behavior 153 Henk Aarts and Ran R. Hassin 10 The Interaction Between Affect and Motivation in Social Judgments and Behavior 168 Joseph P. Forgas and Simon M. Laham 11 Internal and External Encoding Style and Social Motivation 194 Pawel Lewicki 12 Authenticity, Social Motivation, and Psychological Adjustment 210 Michael H. Kernis and Brian M. Goldman 13 Motivation and Construct Accessibility 228 Nira Liberman and Jens Forster¨ part iii. conscious and unconscious social motivation: some consequences and applications 14 Self-Regulatory Processes in Interracial Interactions: The Role of Internal and External Motivation to Respond without Prejudice 249 Patricia G. Devine, Amanda B. Brodish, and Stephanie L. Vance 15 Exploring the Discrepancy Between Implicit and Explicit Prejudice: A Test of Aversive Racism Theory 274 Leanne S. Son Hing, Greg A. Chung-Yan, Robert Grunfeld, Lori K. Robichaud, and Mark P. Zanna 16 Ostracism: When Competing Motivations Collide 294 Wayne A. Warburton and Kipling D. Williams 17 Attentional and Regulatory Mechanisms of Momentary Work Motivation and Performance 314 Howard M. Weiss, Neal M. Ashkanasy, and Daniel J. Beal 18 Social Motivation and Object Relations: Narcissism and Interpersonal Self-Esteem Regulation 332 Frederick Rhodewalt P1: JZZ/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543Agg.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 18:34 Contents ix 19 To Know or Not to Know: Consciousness, Meta-consciousness, and Motivation 351 Jonathan W. Schooler and Charles A. Schreiber Author Index 373 Subject Index 383 P1: IWV/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543c01.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 16:33 1 Social Motivation Introduction and Overview Joseph P. Forgas, Kipling D. Williams, and Simon M. Laham introduction One of the most striking characteristics of human behavior that has fasci- nated philosophers and writers since antiquity is its purposive, intentional quality. Nearly everything we do is done for a reason. In everyday social life, people are constantly pursuing goals and trying to satisfy their desires and wants. It could even be argued that all social behavior and judgment is motivated behavior and judgment. The objective of this book is to review and integrate some of the most recent developments in research on social motivation. Specifically, our aim is to explore how various motivational mechanisms can influence, and are in turn influenced by, cognitive and affective variables as people pursue their various social goals in everyday social life. Of course, not all motivated social behavior is necessarily conscious. Indeed, one of the most interesting recent developments in the social psy- chology of motivation has been the growing recognition that many kinds of social behaviors are performed in an almost automatic, spontaneous fash- ion, without conscious awareness. Even more intriguing are a growing number of findings suggesting not only that social actors are frequently unaware of the real motivational reasons for their behaviors, but more strikingly, that when questioned they often come up with clearly incor- rect or mistaken causal explanations for their actions (Wegner & Gilbert, 2000). Does this mean that the whole notion of intentional, purposive, goal- directed social behavior should be questioned, and imply a need to revise our deepest philosophical assumptions about human beings as conscious, rational, goal-pursuing creatures? What exactly is the relationship be- tween motivation and cognition, and between conscious and unconscious Address correspondence to Joseph P. Forgas, School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia; e-mail: [email protected]. 1 P1: IWV/IVO P2: JZZ 0521832543c01.xml CY406B/Forgas 0 521 82354 3 July 9, 2004 16:33 2 Joseph P. Forgas et al. motivational processes in particular? And how do intrinsic and extrinsic, and conscious and unconscious, motivational influences interact in pro- ducing social behaviors? These are some of the issues we intend to explore in this volume. We have divided this volume into three parts. The first part of the book addresses some of the general issues about the nature and charac- teristics of conscious and unconscious social motivational states (chapters by Harackiewicz, Durik & Barron; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon; Wood & Quinn; Gendolla & Wright, Strack & Deutsch; and Spencer, Fein, Strahan, & Zanna). In the second part, a number of contributors consider the cognitive and affective implications of various social motives (Neuberg, Kenrick, Maner, & Schaller; Aarts & Hassin; Forgas & Laham; Lewicki; Kernis & Goldman; and Liberman & Forster).¨ The third part of the book presents research that explores some of the specific consequences and ap- plications of conscious and unconscious social motivation for important areas of social behavior, such as prejudice, work motivation, social ex- clusion and ostracism, and self-regulatory processes (chapters by Devine, Brodish, & Vance; Son Hing, Chung-Yan, Grunfeld, Robichaud, & Zanna; Warburton & Williams; Weiss, Ashkanasy, & Beal; and Rhodewalt). Finally, in the concluding chapter, Schooler and Schreiber integrate the topics pre- sented here, and identify some of the key themes of this volume. We will begin, however, with a brief theoretical and historical review of motivation research in social psychology. motivation in social psychology: the background The term motivation appears to have first crept into psychologists’ vocab- ularies in the early 1880s. Prior to that date, the more amorphous con- cept of the will was used by philosophers and social theorists when they discussed the antecedents and features of effortful, directed, and moti- vated human behavior. Early functionalist philosophers and psychologists adopted the term motivation usually in reference to voluntary action – behaviors that show direction (Bindra & Stewart, 1966). Initially, motiva- tion was considered an entity that compelled one to action. However, by the early twentieth century motivation became increasingly conceptual- ized in terms of instinct explanations, an approach that seemed to rule out or at least made it unnecessary to consider conscious deliberation, choice, and goal pursuit as part of motivational processes. But the domain was divided. Thinkers such as Darwin (1872), Freud (1915/1957), and McDougall (1908)