sustainability Article The Great Scottish Housing Disaster: The Impacts of Feudalism, Modernism, Energy Efficiency and Vapour Barriers on Indoor Air Quality, Asthma and Public Health Stirling Howieson Department of Architecture, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK; [email protected]; Tel.: +44-141-548-4282 Received: 8 November 2017; Accepted: 18 December 2017; Published: 22 December 2017 Abstract: This paper represents 30 years of research into the arena of housing and health. It brings together the conclusions of three books and the findings of multiple research papers undertaken by the author and published by medical, engineering and social policy journals. This work aims to highlight the links and connections between the diverse arenas of urban form, building design, energy efficiency, indoor air quality, respiratory medicine and immunology, all within the socio-economic framework of a small damp country on the fringe of northern Europe. Keywords: indoor air quality; asthma; public health; housing; energy efficiency; timber frame construction; urban planning; asbestos; feudalism; mould fungal spores; vapour barriers 1. Introduction Life expectancy in many Scottish cities and regions has lagged behind the rest of the UK. The average life expectancy of a male living in the Calton area of Glasgow is 53.8 years [1]. Although mortality remains an excellent measure of poverty, “big data” statistics on morbidity may be a better measure of overall quality of life in any particular country or region. Scotland has for instance, the highest rate of cancer, heart attacks and respiratory disease of all countries in the EU [2]. In addition to genetics, there are 16 major determinants of public health in any given society organised on the basis of neo-liberal economics. These can be categorised under four generic headings (see Table 1). Table 1. 16 determinants affecting Public Health. Socio-Economic Environmental Lifestyle Access to Services Employment Air quality Exercise Education Social inclusion Housing quality Substance abuse Health services Social capital Water and drainage Diet Leisure facilities Safety net Urban form Risky behaviour Transport Although “lifestyle” is seen as being the dominant factor under individual control when public health is being discussed, we should not underestimate the role of the environment. The additive, synergistic and antagonistic combinations produced by the quality of our homes, workplaces and cities, and the access they provide to a range of services (cultural/medical/educational), are crucial components, and can influence both life expectancy and any given population’s overall wellbeing. The post-war history of Scotland provides many valuable lessons on the deleterious effect on public health that can occur when policy makers, in concert with architects and planners (even when operating with good intentions and noble motives) adopt “Corbusien” modernism as the optimum Sustainability 2018, 10, 18; doi:10.3390/su10010018 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 2 of 19 replacementSustainability strategy 2018, 10, 18 for slum clearance. Coleman [3] convincingly demonstrated the unequivocal2 of 19 negativeSustainability impacts 2018 modernist, 10, 18 urban form and dwelling typologies have had on the incidence2 of 19 social replacement strategy for slum clearance. Coleman [3] convincingly demonstrated the unequivocal malaise, such as crime rates, vandalism, graffiti, litter dropping, dog fouling and socio-psychological negativereplacement impacts strategy modernist for slum urban clearance. form and Colema dwellingn [3] typologies convincingly have demonstrated had on the incidence the unequivocal of social effects (particularly associated with tower block and deck access living) such as social isolation and malaise,negative suchimpacts as crime modernist rates, urbanvandalism, form graffiti,and dwelling litter dropping, typologies dog have fouling had on and the socio-psychological incidence of social fear ofeffectsmalaise, crime. (particularly such Urban as crime formassociated rates, can vandalism, with also tower directly graffiti, block affect litter and deck externaldropping, access airdog living) quality, fouling such and with as socio-psychologicalsocial “urban isolation canyons” and at the footfeareffects ofof (particularlycrime. steep hills,Urban associated knownform can to alsowith concentrate directlytower block affect oxides an externald deck of sulphur accessair quality, living) and with such nitrogen, “urban as social ascanyons” isolation well as at benzeneandthe and PMfootfear10 ofof particulates steepcrime. hills, Urban known [form4]. to A can concentrate lack also of directly safe oxides recreational affect of sulphur external space and air nitrogen,quality, in city with centreas well “urban as communities benzene canyons” and at PM may the10 also be contributingparticulatesfoot of steep [4]. hills, to A the knownlack obesity of safeto concentrate epidemicrecreational oxides affecting space of in sulphur city Scottish centre and schoolcommunities nitrogen, children. as wellmay as also Glasgow’s benzene be contributing and traditional PM10 urbantoparticulates formthe obesity was [4]. oneepidemic A oflack tenements of affecting safe recreational Scottish close to school space the workplace, children.in city centre Glasgow’s with communities social traditional amenities may urbanalso be such form contributing as was shops one and bars integratedofto tenementsthe obesity on closeepidemic the to ground the affecting workplace, floor Scottish (Figure with school social1). Modernismchildren.amenities Glasgow’s such eschewed as shops traditional and this bars complexity urban integrated form was in on favour onethe of of tenements close to the workplace, with social amenities such as shops and bars integrated on the zoningground by function. floor (Figure The 1). downModernism side eschewed to this is this that co themplexity good in citizens favour of of zoning the modernist by function. idyll The have downground side floor to (Figurethis is that 1). Modernism the good citizens eschewed of th thise modernist complexity idyll in havefavour to of spend zoning much by function. of their time The to spend much of their time travelling between the various mono-cultural and ring-fenced zones travellingdown side to thisbetween is that thethe good citizensvarious of the mono-culturalmodernist idyll haveand to spendring-fenced much of theirzones time (civic/commercial/industrial/entertainment/educational/health; see Figure 2) invariably burning (civic/commercial/industrial/entertainment/educational/health;travelling between the various mono-cultural see andFigure 2)ring-fenced invariably burningzones carboncarbon(civic/commercial/industrial/entertainment/educational/health; as they as they go. go. see Figure 2) invariably burning carbon as they go. Figure 1. 19th Century complex streets. Figure 1. 19th Century complex streets. Figure 1. 19th Century complex streets. Figure 2. Ring-fenced modernist shopping zone. FigureFigure 2. 2.Ring-fenced Ring-fenced modernistmodernist shopping shopping zone. zone. This paper reviews the major planning and design decisions taken in Scotland since 1945 to date, Thisand (withpaper the reviews benefit the of majorhindsight) planning demonstrat and designes the decisionsassociations taken and in causal Scotland links since between 1945 the to Thisenvironmentdate, paperand (with reviewsthey the created benefit the major(bothof hindsight) internal planning demonstrat and and extern designesal) the and associations decisions public health. taken and Ifcausal inwe Scotland are links to betweenaddress since the 1945 to date,categoricalenvironment and (with imperatives thethey benefit created presented of (both hindsight) internal by climate demonstratesand change extern al)and and thesustainability, public associations health. thes If ande wemistakes are causal to mustaddress links not betweenthe be the environmentrepeated.categorical To imperatives keep they doing created presented the (both same by internalthing climate and andchange expect external) and different sustainability, and outcomes public thes health.is, eaccording mistakes If we mustto are Einstein, not to address be the categoricalidiotic.repeated. To imperatives keep doing the presented same thing by climateand expect change different and outcomes sustainability, is, according these to mistakes Einstein, must not beidiotic. repeated . To keep doing the same thing and expect different outcomes is, according to 2. Exodus: How to Increase a Nation’s Carbon Footprint Einstein, idiotic. 2. Exodus: How to Increase a Nation’s Carbon Footprint Between 1971 and 2001, the population of the City of Glasgow fell by 362,814. This represented 2. Exodus:a net Betweenpopulation How to 1971 Increase outflow and 2001, of a Nation’s37%. the populationUnlike Carbon New of Orlean Footprintthe Citys, the of Glasgow“evacuation” fell by of 362,814.Glasgow, This was represented not forced bya net natural population disaster; outflow it was of 37%.planned. Unlike The New Clyde Orlean Valleys, the Regional “evacuation” Plan ofof Glasgow, 1946 [5] wasproposed not forced the Between 1971 and 2001, the population of the City of Glasgow fell by 362,814. This represented a dispersalby natural of disaster;550,000 ofit thewas city planned. centre inhabitantsThe Clyde toValley peripheral Regional estates Plan and of new1946 towns. [5] proposed Concurrent the net populationwithdispersal the closureof