THE GANDHᾹRAN EDUCATION SYSTEM: ITS SOURCES, STRUCTURE AND LEGACY Alia Jawad INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR 2012 THE GANDHᾹRAN EDUCATION SYSTEM: ITS SOURCES, STRUCTURE AND LEGACY Dissertation submitted to the Institute of Archaeology and Social Anthropology, University of Peshawar in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved by: 1. Professor M. Farooq Swati Institute of Archaeology and Social Anthropology, University of Peshawar Supervisor 2. Internal Examiner 3. External Examiner INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR 2012 CONTENTS Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv Dedication ................................................................................................................... vi Maps ........................................................................................................................... vii Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. xi List of Tables ............................................................................................................. xii List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xiii List of Plates ............................................................................................................ xiv List of Appendixes .................................................................................................. xvii Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1. Chapter 1: Geography and Political History of Ancient Gandhāra ......................... 6 1.1 Historical Geography of Ancient Gandhāra ...................................................... 6 1.1.1 Physical Geography of Ancient Gandhāra .............................................. 8 1.2 The Political History of Ancient Gandhāra ....................................................... 8 1.2.1 The Persian domination .......................................................................... 9 1.2.2 Macedonian invasion .............................................................................. 9 1.2.3 Contributions of the Mauryan Dynasty................................................. 11 1.2.4 The Greeks, Scythians and Parthians in Gandhāra ............................... 17 1.2.5 The Kuśans in Gandhāra ....................................................................... 18 1.2.6 The Kidara Kuśans ................................................................................ 23 1.2.7 The White Hūns .................................................................................... 24 2. Chapter 2: Pre-Buddhist Education System of the University Centre of Taxila .................................................................................... 27 2.1 The Intellectual Legacy of Gandhāra .............................................................. 27 2.2 The University Centre of Taxila: The Seat of a Scientific Education System .................................................... 29 2.2.1 The City of Taxila ................................................................................. 29 2.2.2 The University Centre of Taxila ........................................................... 30 2.3 Teachers of the University Centre of Taxila ................................................... 31 2.3.1 The Upaniśadic Movement of Uddalika Aruni and Svetaketu Auddalaki ............................................ 32 2.3.2 Bhagavat Gῑtā: An Upaniśad of Bhagavats .......................................... 33 2.3.3 The contribution of Páńini .................................................................... 33 2.3.4 The contribution of Kautilya ................................................................. 34 2.4 The Pre-Buddhist Education System .............................................................. 35 i 2.4.1 The courses of study ............................................................................. 36 2.4.2 Political Education ................................................................................ 37 2.4.3 Hydrology ............................................................................................. 38 2.4.4 The environmental education ................................................................ 38 2.4.5 The moral education ............................................................................. 39 3. Chapter 3: The Origin and Development of Buddhist Education System ............. 42 3.1 Buddha as a Great Teacher ............................................................................. 42 3.1.1 The backdrop of the Buddha’s philosophy and education .................... 43 3.1.2 Early Education of Siddharta ................................................................ 43 3.1.3 The Buddhist philosophy of education ................................................. 44 3.2 The Development of Buddhist Education System in Greater Gandhāra......... 46 3.2.1 Taxila .................................................................................................... 47 3.2.2 Kaśmir ................................................................................................... 47 3.2.3 Peshawar ............................................................................................... 53 3.2.4 The Swat Valley .................................................................................... 58 3.3 The Impact of Gandhāra Budhdism on China................................................. 61 4. Chapter 4: Gandhāran Monasteries: Curriculum and Teaching Methodology ...... 68 4.1 The education system as gleaned from Gandhāran scriptures ........................ 68 4.2 The curriculum of Gandhāran monasteries ..................................................... 70 4.2.1 The Buddhist Śāstras............................................................................. 70 4.2.2 The courses of study ............................................................................. 71 4.2.3 The teaching-learning discourses .......................................................... 73 4.2.4 The timings and the time management ................................................. 75 4.3 The Teaching Methodologies .......................................................................... 77 4.3.1 The oral transmission ............................................................................ 77 4.3.2 Question/answer techniques .................................................................. 79 4.3.3 Teaching through individual differences .............................................. 80 4.3.4 Reasoning and critical analysis ............................................................. 80 4.3.5 Teaching through parables and proverbs .............................................. 82 4.3.6 The riddles and metaphors .................................................................... 82 4.3.7 Dialogue and debate as a means of imparting true education ............... 82 4.3.8 The use of signs, symbols and non-verbal communication .................. 85 4.4 Writing Culture of the Gandhāran Monasteries .............................................. 87 4.4.1 The Gandhāra manuscript culture ........................................................ 88 4.4.2 The pens and the inkpots ...................................................................... 89 ii 4.4.3 The archaeological evidence ................................................................. 90 4.5 Meditation-The First and Foremost Component of Monastic Learning ......... 90 4.5.1 The relevance of Mahāyāna meditation and Pre-Buddhist yoge .......... 93 4.5.2 Meditation and monastery architecture ................................................. 99 4.5.3 The socio-cultural, moral and physical benefits of meditation ........... 113 4.5.4 The behavior code through strict self control and self discipline ....... 114 4.6 The Life Sciences .......................................................................................... 114 4.6.1 The pure sciences ................................................................................ 114 4.6.2 The Psychology ................................................................................... 117 4.6.3 The moral and social education of Gandhāra Buddhism .................... 121 4.6.4 Moral education through Jat ............................................................... 124 4.6.5 The medical sciences in Gandhāra ...................................................... 127 4.6.6 Vin and health education ..................................................................... 133 4.6.7 The Gandhāra Monasteries and sponsorship of the indigenous craftsmanship ................................................................... 135 4.7 The Role of Gandhāra Monasteries in Standardization of Rules and Empowerment of the Religious/Educational Institutions ............................ 152 5. Chapter 5: Disintegration and Legacy of the Gandhāran Education System....... 164 5.1 The Decline of Gandhāran Monastic Establishments and the Disappearance of Buddhism from Gandhāra ......................................... 164 5.2 The Post 7th Century CE Spread