Rural-urban Migration of the Maasai Nomadic Pastoralist Youth and Resilience in Tanzania: Case studies in Ngorongoro District, Arusha Region and Dar es Salaam City A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree Doctor phil. of the Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg By Emmanuel J. Munishi Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany 2013 Dean: Prof. Dr. Barbara Koch 1st Reviewer: Prof. Dr. Axel Drescher 2nd Reviewer: Prof. Dr. Tim Freytag 2nd Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Rüdiger Glaser Date of thesis’ defence: 12 June 2013. i Table of contents Table of Contents .....................................................................................................................................ii List of figures ........................................................................................................................................... vi List of tables ............................................................................................................................................ vi List of acronyms...................................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... viii Summary ................................................................................................................................................. ix Zusammenfassung ................................................................................................................................... xi 1. Introduction, problem background and justification ...................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Background to rural-urban migration in Africa: Focus on Tanzania........................................ 3 1.3 Rural-urban migration of the Maasai nomadic pastoralists in Tanzania ................................ 5 1.4 Rapid urbanisation in Africa: A major concern for the rural-urban migrants ......................... 8 1.5 Research problem: questioning the Maasai migrants’ capacities to cope with migration- related threats ................................................................................................................................... 12 1.6 The concept of resilience and its application in this thesis ................................................... 14 1.7 Research aim and objectives ................................................................................................. 16 1.7.1 Research aim ................................................................................................................. 16 1.7.2 Research objectives ....................................................................................................... 16 1.8 Study areas: Ngorongoro District and Dar es Salaam City .................................................... 16 1.8.1 Ngorongoro District: A Maasai migrants’ sending area ................................................ 17 1.8.2 Dar es Salaam city: A Maasai migrants’ receiving area ................................................. 19 1.8.3 Maasai cultural, social, economic and political organisation ........................................ 20 1.9 Justification of the study ....................................................................................................... 22 1.10 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 23 1.11 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 24 1.12 Chapter summary .................................................................................................................. 25 2. Theoretical and conceptual framework ........................................................................................ 27 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 27 2.2 Rural-urban migration models .............................................................................................. 27 2.2.1 Neo-classical economic migration models .................................................................... 27 2.2.2 Structural and institutional migration models .............................................................. 29 2.3 The sustainable livelihood framework .................................................................................. 31 2.4 The multi-layered social resilience framework ..................................................................... 34 2.5 The analytical framework of this thesis................................................................................. 36 2.6 Chapter summary .................................................................................................................. 39 3. Empirical literature on rural-urban migration in Africa in the context of this study .................... 40 ii 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 40 3.2 Rural-urban migration patterns and factors: evidence from Africa ...................................... 40 3.3 Impact of rural-urban migration on the local households’ resilience: focus on Africa ......... 44 3.4 Migration threats for and coping strategies of migrants: evidence from Africa .................. 48 3.5 Chapter summary and research gap to be addressed in this thesis ..................................... 54 4. Research methods ......................................................................................................................... 56 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 56 4.2 Research design and strategy: qualitative approach ............................................................ 56 4.3 Relevance of the qualitative approach to this study ............................................................. 58 4.4 Selection of the study sites ................................................................................................... 59 4.5 Sampling of respondents ....................................................................................................... 61 4.5.1 Sampling respondents in Ngorongoro District .............................................................. 62 4.5.2 Sampling respondents in Dar es Salaam ....................................................................... 64 4.6 Data collection techniques .................................................................................................... 67 4.6.1 Document review and analysis ...................................................................................... 67 4.6.2 Informal conversation and interviews ........................................................................... 68 4.6.3 Observation technique .................................................................................................. 69 4.6.4 Semi-structured key informant interview ..................................................................... 70 4.6.5 In-depth interviews with the Maasai migrants and local households .......................... 71 4.6.6 Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) ..................................................................................... 74 4.7 Research drawbacks and challenges: role of the researcher ................................................ 74 4.8 Data coding and analysis ....................................................................................................... 82 4.9 Reliability and validity of data ............................................................................................... 83 4.10 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................................... 87 4.11 Chapter summary .................................................................................................................. 87 5. Factors for and patterns of rural-urban migration of the Maasai pastoralist youth .................... 88 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 88 5.1 Patterns and nature of the Maasai migrant youth migration ............................................... 88 5.2 Factors for rural-urban migration of the Maasai youth ........................................................ 93 5.2.1 Households’ poverty, decline of pastoralism and agriculture: climatic factors ............ 93 5.2.2 State and land tenure policies ....................................................................................... 97 5.2.3 Conflicts and insecurity condition ................................................................................. 99 5.2.4 Migrants’ expectations at destination areas ............................................................... 100 5.2.5 Role of social networks ................................................................................................ 101 5.2.6 Technological influence: role of transportation and