University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2017 A Comparative Study of Culture and Cultural Heritage in Humanitarian Aid Efforts: Post-Earthquake Haiti and Post- Tsunami Aceh Natalie K. Ruhe University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Ruhe, Natalie K., "A Comparative Study of Culture and Cultural Heritage in Humanitarian Aid Efforts: Post- Earthquake Haiti and Post-Tsunami Aceh" (2017). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1295. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1295 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. A Comparative Study of Culture and Cultural Heritage in Humanitarian Aid Efforts: Post-Earthquake Haiti and Post-Tsunami Aceh __________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Social Sciences University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts __________ by Natalie K. Ruhe June 2017 Advisor: Esteban Gomez ! Author: Natalie K. Ruhe Title: A Comparative Study of Culture and Cultural Heritage in Humanitarian Aid Efforts: Post-Earthquake Haiti and Post-Tsunami Aceh Advisor: Esteban Gomez Degree Date: June 2017 ABSTRACT This thesis explores how cultural knowledge, beliefs, and practices affected the humanitarian aid response to disasters in Haiti and Aceh Province, Indonesia. It examines the importance of local knowledge in post-disaster response situations and how aid workers’ “expertise” interplays with local knowledge, decision-making structures, and leadership. I questioned how knowledge of cultural practices could contribute to a more effective humanitarian aid approach and identified housing, social institutions and local leadership, economic systems, religious belief and practice as primary focuses. Examples detail how cultural beliefs and practices—as well as cultural heritage—may be vehicles for social stability and advance recovery in the social and economic spheres. ii ! TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………...............1 Chapter Two: Methods and Theory……………………………………………………….8 Research Questions………………………………………………………………..9 Methodology……………………………………………………………………..10 Case Study Method………………………………………………………………11 Comparative Analysis……………………………………………………………12 Vulnerability and Disaster……………………………………………………….14 Communities and Psychosocial Needs…………………………………………..16 Culture in Humanitarian Aid…………………………………………………….20 Cultural Heritage, Identity, and Conflict………………………………...………28 Culture and Heritage in Development Work……………………...……………..31 Heritage Preservation and Cultural Tourism…………………………………….36 Gender in Humanitarian Aid and Development………………………………....39 Discussion…………………………………………………………………..……42 Chapter Three: Historical and Cultural Foundations……………………………………43 Haiti: Historical Vulnerability………………………………………………......43 Exploring Root Causes………………………………………………………….46 Haiti and Foreign Involvement………………………………………………….49 The Concept of Haiti as a Failed State…………………………………………..52 Aceh, Indonesia………………………………………………………………….55 Context of Disaster………………………………………………………………56 Acehnese Independence and the Indonesian State………………………………58 Discussion………………………………………………………………………..60 Chapter Four: Displacement and Reconstruction………………………………………..63 Tent Cities and Temporary Shelters……………………………………………..64 Urban Connections and Rural Relocation………………………………………..73 Housing Challenges……………………………………………………………...77 Architecture and the Environment……………………………………………….80 Socio-cultural Practices and Housing…………………………………………....84 Rebuilding with Communities…………………………………………………...89 Discussion………………………………………………………………………..95 Chapter Five: Challenges of Foreign Involvement……………………………………..100 “Mountains of Misunderstandings”………………………………………….…101 Working with Locals……………………………………………………………108 iii ! Discussion………………………………………………………………..……..115 Chapter Six: Employment and Local Economies…………………………………....…118 Cash-for-Work Programs……………………………………………..………...119 Local Economies and Foreign Investment……………………………..……….123 Haiti’s Garment Industry………………………………………...……………..123 Aceh’s Fishing Industry……………………………………………………..….124 Training Opportunities and the Informal Economy………………………….....127 Rural Livelihoods……………………………………………………………….130 Discussion…………………………………………………………………...….134 Chapter Seven: The Role of Religion…………………………………….……….........138 Religious Belief and Practice as a Stabilizing Force…………………………...139 Understanding Disaster as Divine Retribution…………………………………144 Religion as a Source of Community Conflict…………………………………..148 Discussion…………………………………………………………………...….152 Chapter Eight: Heritage Protection and Humanitarian Aid………………………….…155 International Aid Organizations Respond……………………………….……...156 Haitian Cultural Heritage……………………………………………………….159 Cultural Heritage in Aceh………………………………………………………170 The Arts of Survival…………………………………………………………….176 Discussion………………………………………………………………………179 Chapter Nine: Summary and Recommendations…………………………………….....183 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………....194 iv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION The Haitian earthquake of January 2010 left the cities of Léogane and Port-au- Prince in ruins and compounded the poverty and instability of the Caribbean nation. Beyond the fractured infrastructure, the human toll was staggering: an estimated 200,000 were dead and millions displaced. The aid response was swift as international agencies— some of them long-established in Haiti—developed strategies to distribute aid. Monetary pledges poured in from around the world as funds were solicited to provide essential services and goods and for reconstructing hospitals and schools. Four years prior, on December 26, 2004, an earthquake triggered a tsunami in the Indian Ocean. A reported 167,000 lives were lost in the Aceh province of Indonesia alone, equivalent to 4 percent of the population (Hyndman and Waizenegger 107). The power of the wave was evident in the extent of the physical destruction. Water reached far inland, destroying man-made structures and erasing natural coastal features. Rapid response is necessary following natural disasters like those in Haiti and Aceh, meaning cultural complexities are often a secondary concern. Once emergency measures have been taken, humanitarian organizations may consider their role in the long-term recovery process and consider the consequences of aid projects and development programs. Aid may be disruptive and ultimately delay recovery if it is not culturally appropriate or rooted in cultural practice, and certain approaches may not be suitable based on a population’s cultural values and historical experience. 1! Numerous examples detail how government agencies and foreign NGOs take part in post-disaster recovery processes and determine community needs and priorities with little or no consultation with the affected population. Despite the efforts of well-meaning individuals and aid organizations, a lack of cultural understanding and meaningful participation by local stakeholders often leads to misguided programs that are unwelcome or unsuccessful in the short- or long-term. Standardized aid approaches can be ineffective because local cultural forces, traditions, and beliefs are frequently disregarded. It is prudent to define the term “culture” as there are numerous definitions that may be applied based on a particular theoretical approach. UNESCO explains culture as a “complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by [a human] as a member of society” ("Learning to Live Together"). It is also described as “a dynamic force for renewal and creativity,” hence its use as an asset or tool for post-disaster reconstruction and development (Bokova “The Power of Culture for Development” 3). The definition of culture as “sets of learned and shared attitudes, beliefs, and value characteristics of a particular society” is also applicable because of its emphasis on transmission through and by people (Sidky 421). For the purpose of this thesis, I have elected to view culture as the beliefs, values, attitudes, and practices that a group of people adheres to, as well as the social institutions and relationships in which they participate. Culture is transmitted by people and through people. I am interested in how beliefs, attitudes, and practices are negotiated in the aftermath of disaster and during response efforts, but also in the impact of disaster and humanitarian response on social institutions such as families, religious groups, and 2! economic systems. I believe an understanding of culture that embraces both short- and long-term change is especially important because of the rapid changes that may occur following a natural disaster. In an article written for the Journal of the Prince Claus Fund, anthropologist Anthony Oliver-Smith defines cultural heritage as, …the historical memory of a community, to that which links people to others and to their environment throughout time. Cultural heritage is constituted in objects, resources, and practices that locate a people in the universe, giving them a sense of identity through time. (“The Centrality of Culture in Post-Disaster Reconstruction” 20) Thus, cultural heritage can refer to material culture, communal