AN ANALYSIS OF LATE BRONZE AGE AEGEAN GLYPTIC MOTIFS OF A RELIGIOUS NATURE by JENNIFER LINDA PALMER A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Classics, Ancient History and Archaeology School of History and Cultures College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham February 2014 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis presents an analysis of glyptic motifs of a religious nature attested on the Greek mainland in the Late Helladic period and on Crete post Late Minoan IB. Its purpose is to ascertain to what extent such an analysis can, firstly, expand our knowledge of religious practices in the Late Bronze Age Aegean, and, secondly, elucidate the nature of the relationship between Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece. This was achieved through the classification and analysis of five glyptic themes generally regarded as possessing religious significance in scholarship. These are anthropomorphic figures and non-anthropomorphic elements flanked by animals, seated women, figures with architecture, and animal sacrifice. This contention was critically appraised by developing a widely applicable methodology that demonstrated that many possessed religious aspects. The comparative analysis between the glyptic iconography of the Cretan Neopalatial Period and that of the Greek mainland and post-Late Minoan IB Crete identified specific changes that occurred from circa 1470 BCE onwards and established which of these originated on the mainland. As a result, I have defined a group of iconographic representations that provide specific information regarding religious practices in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and clarified the relationship between religious iconography and reality. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I must thank my supervisor, Ken Wardle, for his guidance, encouragement, and confidence in my abilities. Thanks are also due to the Department of Classics, Ancient History and Archaeology (formerly the IAA) at the University of Birmingham for providing me with opportunities beyond my own research, and to Tony Leahy for his continued support. Additionally, my colleagues in the Department (especially the Forum crowd) have provided me with a welcome and rewarding diversion from the more mundane aspects of research. This thesis has necessitated more than one research trip to Greece; thanks are due to the staff at the British School at Athens, especially Mrs Tania Gerousi and Mrs Vicki Tzavara, for ensuring that everything always ran smoothly. Similarly, the staff and curators at the National Archaeological Museum at Athens, and the Piraeus, Mycenae, and Nafplio Museums were incredibly helpful and patient. Thanks are also due to my friends, especially Becca, for making sure I do the things I’m supposed to do, and Katie, for keeping me sane and never letting my (reasonable) doubts get the better of me. I must also acknowledge the great patience shown to me by Ed, who helped ensure that this thesis made it onto paper. My friends and family back home have also provided me with encouragement and reassurance when most needed. Finally, heartfelt thanks are due to my parents, who have supported me on so many different levels, and who never doubted that I could do this. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Aims ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Outline of Sources and Key Bibliography ....................................................... 2 1.1.3 Introduction to the Analysis ............................................................................ 5 1.2 My Motif-Groups: Outline and Literature Review ............................................. 8 1.2.1 Male and Female Figures Flanked by Animals (Chapter 2) ............................. 8 1.2.2 Antithetic Animal Groups (Chapter 3) .......................................................... 10 1.2.3 Seated Women (Chapter 4) ........................................................................... 12 1.2.4 Standing Figures with Architecture (Chapter 5)............................................. 14 1.2.5 Motifs Relating to Animal Sacrifice (Chapter 6) ........................................... 15 1.2.6 Conclusion (Chapter 7) ................................................................................. 17 1.3 Seals, Rings, and Sealings: An Introduction to their Forms and Sources .......... 18 1.3.1 Shapes and Materials of Seals and Rings ....................................................... 18 1.3.2 The Sources of Seals and Rings .................................................................... 21 1.3.3 Sphragistic Uses of Seals and Rings: Sealings and their Sources ................... 24 1.3.4 Non-Sphragistic Uses .................................................................................... 28 1.4 Selecting and Interpreting the Material ............................................................ 29 1.4.1 Identifying Minoan Precursors ...................................................................... 29 1.4.2 Recurring Motifs ........................................................................................... 31 1.4.3 Criteria for the Selection of Recurring Motifs ............................................... 32 1.4.4 Criteria for Ascertaining the Divinity of a Figure .......................................... 40 1.4.5 Criteria for Ascertaining the Mortality of a Figure ........................................ 43 1.5 Glyptic Iconography as a Source for Religious Practices ................................. 44 CHAPTER 2. MALE AND FEMALE FIGURES FLANKED BY ANIMALS ............ 47 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 47 2.1.1 Outline of the Motif-Group ........................................................................... 47 2.1.2 Iconographic Transference between the Aegean and the Near East................ 50 2.2 Male Figures Flanked by Animals ................................................................... 52 2.2.1 Male Figures Flanked by Fantastic Creatures ................................................ 54 2.2.2 Male Figures Flanked by Lions ..................................................................... 57 2.2.3 Male Figures Flanked by Other Creatures ..................................................... 60 2.2.4 Interpretation ................................................................................................ 63 2.2.5 Minoan Precursors and Origins ..................................................................... 64 2.3 Female Figures Flanked by Animals ................................................................ 70 2.3.1 Female Figures with Frames ......................................................................... 71 2.3.2 The Frames: Appearances Elsewhere in Iconography and Analysis ............... 76 2.3.3 Female Figures without Frames .................................................................... 82 2.3.4 Origins .......................................................................................................... 86 2.4 Possible Non-Sphragistic Uses of the Motifs ................................................... 91 2.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 93 CHAPTER 3. ANTITHETIC ANIMAL GROUPS ...................................................... 95 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 95 3.2 Pillars Flanked by Animals .............................................................................. 97 3.2.1 Pillars in Architectural Contexts.................................................................... 98 3.2.2 Pillars Flanked by Daemons ........................................................................ 100 3.2.3 Pillars Flanked by Griffins .......................................................................... 102 3.2.4 Pillars Flanked by Lions.............................................................................. 104 3.2.5 Pillars Flanked by Other Creatures .............................................................. 106 3.2.6 Symbolism and Significance ....................................................................... 109 3.3 Plants Flanked by Animals ............................................................................ 114 3.3.1 Plants Flanked by Daemons ........................................................................ 115 3.3.2 A Naturalistic Tree Flanked by Animals ..................................................... 116 3.3.3 Palms Flanked by Animals .........................................................................