City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 6-2014 The Role of Water in the Rise, Prominence, and Decline of Nabataean Petra Dennis Cummins Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/192 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE RISE, PROMINENCE, AND DECLINE OF NABATAEAN PETRA by DENNIS P. CUMMINS A master’s thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Middle Eastern Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, The City University of New York 2014 © 2014 DENNIS P. CUMMINS All Rights Reserved ii The manuscript has been read and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in Middle Eastern Studies in satisfaction of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts Approved by ____________________________________________ Date: ____________ Professor Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis, Advisor ____________________________________________ Date: ____________ Professor Simon Davis, Second Reader ____________________________________________ Date: ____________ Professor Beth Baron, Executive Director THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii Abstract THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE RISE, PROMINENCE, AND DECLINE OF NABATAEAN PETRA by DENNIS P. CUMMINS Advisor: Professor Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis This paper evaluates the rise of Nabataean Petra, its prominence, and eventual decline. The predominant context is effective water management as a pivotal driving factor in the growth of the Nabataean kingdom, which fostered an environment in which its famous incense trade could develop. Rising incense demand was the catalyst for growth from the first century BC through the first century AD; in AD 106 when Rome annexed the Nabataean kingdom, Petra began its gradual decline. In AD 363 an earthquake destroyed much of the city, and Petra did not return to its earlier prominence. From the outset, water played a vital role in cementing Petra’s position economically and politically, and later ornamental uses of water legitimized the kingdom and its rulers to its population and rivals. iv Table of Contents Section 1: History of the Nabataeans and Petra from 300 BC to 363 AD pg. 1 Introduction pg. 1 Early Nabataeans pg. 3 The Nabataean Kingdom pg. 4 Roman Petra pg. 7 Section 2: Archaeological Evidence of Nabataean Water Infrastructure pg. 11 Water and Religion pg. 11 Water Infrastructure in Petra pg. 13 Survey Results from the Wadi Musa Water Supply and Wastewater Project pg. 19 Run-Off Farming pg. 22 Water Management System pg. 22 The Petra Pool and Garden Complex pg. 23 Ornamental Display of Water pg. 28 Roman Perception of Water in Petra pg. 33 Conclusions pg. 34 References pg. 36 v List of Figures Figure 1: Map of Petra and surrounding settlements pg. 5 Figure 2: The Treasury viewed from the Siq pg. 7 Figure 3: Map of Petra city center pg. 8 Figure 4: Fish Goddess, from the Nabataean temple at Khirbet-Tannur pg. 12 Figure 5: A carved canal in the Siq leading to Petra pg. 15 Figure 6: A channel leading to a cistern in Petra pg. 18 Figure 7: Nabataean pipe with tapered ends pg. 21 Figure 8: Reconstruction drawing of pool complex pg. 24 Figure 9: Scale comparison of Petra Pool Complex (top) and Herodium Pool Complex (bottom) pg. 27 Figure 10: The ruins of the nymphaeum at Gerasa pg. 30 vi Section 1: History of the Nabataeans and Petra from 300 BC to 363 AD Introduction This paper aims to evaluate the rise of Nabataean Petra, its prominence, and eventual decline. The predominant context will be effective water management as a pivotal driving factor in the growth of the Nabataean kingdom, which fostered an environment in which its famous incense trade could develop. Effective water management created an environment in which the city would flourish after its foundation around 300 BC. Rising incense demand was the catalyst for growth from the first century BC through the first century AD; in AD 106 when Rome annexed the Nabataean kingdom, Petra began its gradual decline. In AD 363 an earthquake destroyed much of the city, and Petra did not return to its earlier prominence. Nabataean Petra emerged from nomadic origins to trading renown based on its location in Jordan’s Rift Valley. This was an ideal transshipment point linking the Euphrates River and the Red Sea, southern Arabia north into Syria, and across the Sinai or Negev to Gaza and the Mediterranean Sea (Joukowsky, 1). The gum resins frankincense, myrrh, and balsam were the most important commodities traded in Petra. Other important commodities that were traded through Petra include pearls, cinnabar, cardamom, gum, and styptic. Trading relationships also brought spices from India and silks from China through Petra (Graf and Sidebotham, 71). As Graf and Sidebotham remark, “It is difficult to ascertain what commodities the caravans received in exchange from the Mediterranean ports to return back to Petra or used in payment to south Arabia for purchasing aromatics” (Graf and Sidebotham, 71). However, archaeological finds in south Arabia 1 suggest that the Nabataeans may have received Mediterranean-made glass, ceramics, bronze objects, and Roman coins in exchange for aromatics (Graf and Sidebotham, 71). The caravan trade brought great wealth to Petra and funded large-scale construction projects throughout the city including temples, fountains, and pools. Considering Petra's desert location, water resources were of the utmost importance to the city. The Nabataeans managed their water resources masterfully, as the highly developed water management infrastructure around the city attests. And yet, considering the desert environment in which their kingdom was located, it seems only logical that the Nabataeans would be parsimonious with their precious water resources. By contrast, archaeological evidence has shown several examples of extravagant uses of water in the city. As Leigh-Ann Bedal’s writings on the Petra Pool and Garden Complex show, water was used as a status symbol in Petra, and served ornamental, recreational, and religious purposes (Bedal, 97). The uses of water by the Nabataeans, both essential and nonessential, will be investigated in the second section of the paper. The evaluation of the history of Petra, paying special attention to the importance of water management and the critical incense trade, begins below. A review of the existing literature on Nabataean Petra, documentary sources, and archaeological field reports will sustain my analysis of the overarching importance of water to the rise, prominence, and decline of Petra. The paper begins with a history of the Nabataeans and Petra, and is followed by a discussion of water management in the city. 2 Early Nabataeans Hieronymus of Cardia presents one of the earliest accounts of the Nabataeans, whom he encountered around the end of the fourth century BC. At this time, the Nabataeans were nomads who were involved in trade, and operated out of a central “rock”, a stronghold where possessions were safeguarded. Petra means “rock” in Greek, and this stronghold may have been the location that would become Petra (Parr, 35). The origin of the Nabataeans is mysterious, and as Bowersock writes, “No source reveals the origins of the Nabataeans” (Bowersock, 19). Early denizens of the area that became Petra may have included some Edomites, who were displaced by the destruction of Edom by Nabonidus. Some intermarriage between Edomites who lived pastorally in the area and Nabataeans has been speculated (Parr, 33). As Parr explains: “Whether any element of Edomite culture survived strongly enough to have influenced the Nabataean nomads is, however, extremely doubtful” (Parr, 33). Outside threats to the nomadic Nabataeans may well have encouraged centralization and settlement. From the north, the Macedonians were consolidating power in the vacuum that was left by the destruction of Judah and Edom, and aimed to seize control of Arabian trade (Parr, 35). In 312 BC, the Nabataeans resisted an attack on the central “rock” by Antigonus, successor to Alexander the Great (Bowersock, 19). Hellenistic rule over Egypt also proved a threat to the Nabataeans from the south, when Ptolemy II raided the Nabataeans east of the Gulf of Aqaba in 278 BC, after Nabataean pirates attacked Egyptian shipping (Parr, 35). These threats encouraged Nabataean sedentarisation and centralization of leadership (Parr, 35). However, pegging a date for the sedentarisation of 3 the Nabataeans has proven as elusive as identifying the origins of the Nabataeans (Bowersock, 19). The Nabataean Kingdom The exact date of the settlement of Petra as the capital of the Nabataean kingdom is uncertain. Information about the early monarchy is scarce, but settlement may have occurred in the early second century BC (Bedal, 11). Petra became the major entrepot of Nabataean trade as the Nabataeans gained control of caravan routes, primarily transporting valuable commodities frankincense and myrrh, which were only produced in south Arabia and northern Somalia. Two of these main routes were the east-west “Incense Route” which connected the Hadramaut and Gaza, and the north-south route, which connected Egypt and Syria (Bedal, 9-10). The main uses of incense during the Hellenistic and Roman periods were in religious rituals, cosmetics and perfumes, and medicines (Bedal, 10). 4 Figure 1: Map of Petra and surrounding settlements (Bedal, fig. 1). 5 The size and boundaries of the Nabataean kingdom fluctuated based on the political strength of the neighboring kingdoms, particularly Judea (Bedal, 13). Through the third and second centuries BC, the Nabataean kingdom included Petra and its surrounding areas, westward into the Negev including Nessana, Sobota, Elusa, Oboda, Rehovot, and Mampsis – and north into the Hawran around Bostra (Bedal, 13).