1 ================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 Vol. 20:3 March 2020 ================================================================ AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore 641 112 Tamilnadu, India [email protected] Coimbatore March 2020 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 2 FOREWORD This monograph has been compiled by me for introducing semantics and pragmatics to the students of some correspondence course. It is a compiled work written in the style of a correspondence course. I was planning to expand it with Tamil examples and make it a comprehensive one. But I could not find time to do it. When it was uploaded in academia.edu and Research Gate, it received a lot of appreciations and quite a number of hits. So I thought of publishing it. As usual Prof. M.S. Thirumalai extended his helping hand to publish it in Language in India. Hope this will receive wider audience. RAJENDRAN SANKARAVELAYUTHAN ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 3 COURSE CONTENT Sr. no Headings and subheadings page AIM 13 UNIT 1 Nature and scope of semantics 13 CONTENT 13 OVERVIEW 13 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 15 1.1. Concept an definition of semantics 15 1.1.1. Concept of semantics 15 1.1.2. The definition of semantics 17 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1. 18 1.2. Brief history of semantics 18 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2. 24 1.3. Semantics and other disciplines 24 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3. 25 1.4. Major concerns of semantics 26 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.4. 27 1.5. Approaches to the study of semantics 27 1.5.1. Traditional semantics 27 1.5.2. Behavioural semantics 28 1.5.3. Structural semantics 28 1.5.4. Generative semantics 29 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.5 29 1.6. Branches of semantics 30 1.6.1. Lexical semantics 30 1.6.2. Grammatical semantic 30 1.6.3. Logical semantics 31 1.6.4. Linguistics and pragmatics 31 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.6 32 SUMMARY 32 BIBLIOGRAPHY 33 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 4 UNIT 2 The study of meaning 33 CONTENT 33 OVERVIEW 34 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 35 2.1. Schools of thought in meaning 35 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1. 36 2.2. Types of meaning 36 2.2.1. Thematic meaning 36 2.2.2. Conceptual meaning 38 2.2.3. Associative meaning 40 2.2.3.1. Connotative meaning 41 2.2.3.2. Collocative meaning 42 2.2.3.3. Affective meaning 43 2.2.3.4. Reflected meaning 44 2.2.3.5. Stylistic (or social) meaning 45 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2. 47 2.3. Theories of meaning 47 2.3.1. The ideational theory of meaning 48 2.3.2. Behaviorist theory of meaning 49 2.3.3. The referential theory of meaning 50 2.3.4. Possible-world theory of meaning 52 2.3.5. Fregean theory of meaning 52 2.3.6. Verificationist theory of meaning 53 2.3.7. Truth-conditional theory of meaning 54 2.3.8. Conceptual-role theory of meaning 56 2.3.9. Gricean theory of meaning 57 2.3.10. The use theory of meaning 57 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.3. 58 2.4. Three perspective of meaning 58 2.4.1. Lexical semantics 58 2.4.2. Compositional semantics 59 2.4.3. Discourse or pragmatics 60 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4. 60 SUMMARY 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY 61 UNIT 3 Lexical semantics I 61 CONTENT 61 OVERVIEW 62 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 62 3.1. Approaches to lexical semantics 63 3.1.1. One level vs. two level approaches 63 3.1.2. Monosemic vs polysemic approaches 63 3.1.3. The compositional approach 64 3.1.4. ‘Holist’ approach 65 3.1.5. Conceptual approach 67 3.1.6. Formal approach 67 LEARNING ACTIVITY 3.1 67 3.2 Lexical relations 68 3.2.1. Pragmatic and syntagmatic relations 68 3.2.2. Congruence relations 68 3.2.3. Pragmatic sense relations of identity and inclusion 70 3.2.3.1. Synonymy 70 3.2.3.2. Hyonymy and hypernymy 72 3.2.3.3. Meronymy and holonymy 75 3.2.3.4. Compatibility 77 3.2.4. Pragmatic sense relations of exclusion and opposition 78 3.2.4.1. Incompatibility 78 3.2.4.2. Opposition and contrast 78 3.2.4.2.1. Gradable and ungradable opposites 78 3.2.4.2.2. Complementaries 79 3.2.4.2.3. Privative and equipollent antonyms 79 3.2.4.2.4. Contraditions and contraries 79 3.2.4.2.5. Distinction between contrast, opposition and complementaries 79 3.2.4.2.6. Converseness 80 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 6 3.2.4.2.7. Directional, orthogonal and antipodal opposition 80 3.2.4.2.8. Non-binary contrast 81 LEARNING ACTIVITY 3.2 82 UNIT 4 Lexical semantics II 82 CONENT 82 OVERVIEW 83 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 84 4.1. Hierarchies 84 4.1.1. Taxonomic hierarchies 85 4.1.1.1. Hyponymy and incompatibility 85 4.1.1.2. Taxonomy 86 4.1.1.3. Characteristics of natural taxonomies 87 4.1.1.3.1. Lexical gaps and covert category 87 4.1.1.3.2. Proto-typical vs. peripheral member 88 4.1.1.3.3. Quasi-relations 89 4.1.1.3.4 Overlapping of co-taxonyms 89 4.1.2. Meronymic hierarchies 90 4.1.2.1. Defining meronymy 90 4.1.2.2. Transitivity in meronymy 92 4.1.2.3. Characteristics of meronomies 93 4.1.2.4. Close relatives of the part-whole relation 94 4.1.2.5. Meronomies and taxonomies 96 LEARNING ACTIVITY 4.1 97 4.2. Non-branching hierarchies 97 4.2.1. From branching to non-branching 97 4.2.2. Chains, helices and cycles 100 4.2.3. Ranks, grades and degrees 102 4.2.4. Linear structures 103 4.2.4.1. Bipoles 104 4.2.4.2. Bipolar chains 104 4.2.4.3. Monopolar chains 104 4.2.4.3.1. Degrees 104 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 7 4.2.4.3.2. Stages 104 4.2.4.3.3. Measures 105 4.2.4.3.4. Ranks 105 4.2.4.3.5. Sequences 105 4.2.5. Proportional series/Grids 105 4.2.6. Clusters 107 4.2.7 Miscellaneous types 108 LEARNING ACTIVITY 4.2. 108 SUMMARY 108 BIBLIOGRAPHY 109 UNIT 5 Componential analysis of meaning 109 CONTENT 109 OVERVIEW 110 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 110 5.1. Componential analysis 110 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.1. 112 5.2. Background to componential analysis 112 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.2. 115 5.3. How does the theory of meaning component work 115 5.3.1. Components of meaning 117 5.3.2. Componential analysis of meaning 119 5.3.3. Analysing and distinguishing meanings 125 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.3. 130 5.4. Procedural steps in the componential analysis of meaning 131 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.4. 132 5.5. Linguistic basis for componential analysis 133 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.5. 134 5.6. Contributions to the study of meaning 134 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.6. 134 5.7. Basic difficulties encountered in the analaysis of semantic component 135 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.7. 136 5.8. Applicability and universality 136 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 8 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.8. 138 5.9. Apparent advantages of the componential approach 138 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.9. 139 5.10. Strength and weakness of componential analysis 140 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.10. 140 SUMMARY 141 BIBLIOGRAPHY 141 UNIT 6 Dynamics of word meaning and lexicon 142 CONTENT 142 OVERVIEW 143 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 143 6.1. Dynamics of word meaning 143 6.1.1. Contextual variability of word meaning 144 6.1.2. Polysemy 145 6.1.2.1. Varieties of polysemy 145 6.1.2.1.1. Linear polysemy 145 6.1.2.1.2. Non-linear polysemy 146 6.1.2.1.2.1. Metaphor 146 6.1.2.1.2.2. Metonymy 147 6.1.2.1.2.3. Difference between Metonymy and synecdoche 148 6.1.3. Extensions of meaning 149 6.1.3.1. Naturalized extensions 149 6.1.3.2. Established extensions 149 6.1.3.3. Nonce readings 150 6.1.4. Semantic change 150 6.1.4.1. Mechanisms of semantic change 151 6.1.4.1.1. Technology and current relevance 151 6.1.4.1.2. Analogy 153 6.1.4.2. Consequence of semantic change 154 6.1.4.3. Types of semantic change 154 6.1.4.3.1. Widening or generalization or extension 154 6.1.4.3.2. Narrowing or specialization 155 ==================================================================== Language in India www.languageinindia.com ISSN 1930-2940 20:3 March 2020 Prof. Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE ON SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS 9 6.1.4.3.3. Branching 155 6.1.4.3.4.