Volume 2, Issue 2, Spring 2015 International Journal of African Development Vol. 2 Issue 2, Spring 2015 Western Michigan University College of Arts & Sciences Department of Economics and Center for African Development Policy Research (CADPR) Editorial Management Team 2015 Chief Editor, Sisay Asefa, PhD, Distinguished Service Professor of Economics and Director of the Center for African Development Policy Research, Western Michigan University Managing Editor, Lisa Whittaker, MA, Associate Professor of Aviation, Western Michigan University Acting Managing Editor, Fredah Mainah, MBA, MA, PhD Candidate in Organizational Leadership and Instructor at Interdisciplinary Health Services and Women and Gender Studies Departments, Western Michigan University Associate Editors Amos Aduroja, PhD, MPH, FASHA, Associate Professor of Health Education Evaluation and Research, Western Michigan University Dolly Daftary, PhD, Assistant Professor of Social Work, Western Michigan University Glinda Rawls, PhD, Associate Professor of Counselor Education and Psychology, Western Michigan University Mariam Konate, PhD, Associate Professor of Gender and Women Studies, Western Michigan University Menelik Geremew, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Business and Economics, Kalamazoo College PhD Graduate Assistant Editors Bezawit Teshome Agiro, PhD student in Applied Economics, Western Michigan University Daniel Abraham Mengistu, PhD student in Applied Economics, Western Michigan University Nardos Moges Beyene, PhD student in Applied Economics, Western Michigan University Paul Burgess, MA student in Applied Economics, Western Michigan University Pimam Manzi Pidalatan, PhD student in Applied Economics, Western Michigan University International Journal of African Development Volume 2, Issue 2, Spring 2015 Contents Editorial Note 4 Sisay Asefa Challenges Facing Female Leaders of Color in U.S. Higher Education 5 Fredah Mainah and Vernita Perkins False Consciousness as a Major Hindrance to Control of Corruption in Africa 14 John Otieno Ouko ICTs and Regional Economic Integration: An Anticipatory Scenario for the 19 Horn of Africa Ali Noor Mohamed Ethnographic Study to Understand the Culture of Technology Manufacturing in Ghana 36 Yao-Martin Donani Determinants of Farm and Non-Farm Family-Controlled Child Labor 47 Kofi Acheampong Convalescent Serum Therapy as Rapid Advance Treatment for Ebola in West Africa 58 J. Bankole Thompson, Patricia F. Mejabi, Olugbenga O. Mejabi, and S. Ahmed Tejan-Sie Examining the Outcomes of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) as an Integral Tool of 71 Public Sector: Reform in Selected Sectors of the Oromia Regional Government Tolla Berisso Geda and Daniel Beyera Editorial Note As the Chief Editor, I am pleased to introduce this second issue of the second volume of IJAD for spring 2015. This volume constitutes the 4th issue of IJAD that began in fall 2013. This issue presents seven papers on broad areas of challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. They range from a gender gap in higher education, corruption, child labor, Internet for regional integration, regional public sector reform, maternal employment, culture of manufacturing technology and Ebola in West Africa. While most of the papers in this issue focus on African states, one paper focuses on the challenge of closing the gender gap opportunities in the United States in higher education. IJAD is an interdisciplinary journal on challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. The editors view human and social progress as a multidimensional process involving sustainable economic development, the advancement of human capabilities, environmental security, a richer cultural life, and reduced poverty through access to equal opportunity and greater political and social freedom and justice with appreciation of human and cultural diversity and inclusiveness. The previous vol. 2 issue 1 in fall 2014 was comprised of six papers that focused on the theme of governance of agriculture, natural resources, food and nutrition security and land rights. We hope this issue will be of great interest and value to our readers as the previous ones have been. I am pleased to report the past three issues were widely received not only in Africa but all other parts of the world including Europe and North America based on the reporting system in ScholarWorks. At the time of publication of this issue, IJAD’s first three issues had gained worldwide interest with over 5,000 downloads from 67 countries. Sisay Asefa, Chief Editor International Journal of African Development (IJAD) http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/ijad/ Challenges Facing Female Leaders of Color in U.S. Higher Education Fredah Mainah, Western Michigan University Vernita Perkins, Chicago School of Professional Psychology Abstract Despite a myriad of challenges including the slow pace of rising to the top and the low compositional diversity in most university leadership, women of color are becoming increasingly visible in higher education leadership. This paper investigates the phenomena of the growing numbers of women of color in top positions, with the aim of debunking the myth of the invisibility of black women in leadership positions in higher education. The findings indicate that although women in the U.S. earn the majority of postsecondary degrees and 26.4% of college presidents are women, with 4.5% of them being women of color, women still have a long way to go before they have equal status with men in university leadership positions. Theories and practices of leadership now focus on competencies that have typically and traditionally been associated with women, and not valued as workplace leadership competencies. An advantageous increase in female academicians means these women bring a different level of knowing, pose different questions, and share different experiences than their male counterparts. Unfortunately, female academicians’ experiences do not yet factor into public policies and decision- making. Keywords: leadership, women of color, higher education, social inclusion, workplace bias, disparity, social exclusion, social barriers Although female academicians of color are increasingly visible in leadership positions in higher education, the challenges that they contend with in order to achieve this status are not for the faint of heart. Challenges described in the literature include racial and gender bias at work. Even with affirmative action and tokenism, the number of racial discrimination settlement cases and unequal pay cases brought against corporate organizations and universities evidences gender bias and unequal pay. Identifying aspects of women of color in higher education are black, African American, Latina, Hispanic, or African. These identifiers of women of color present a barrier to social inclusion even after completion of doctorate degrees and acceptance of faculty positions in U.S. universities. The World Bank defines social inclusion as the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and dignity of people who are disadvantaged on the basis of their identity to take part in society such identity markers as race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location, personal habits, appearance, education, religion, and political affiliation. The bases for social exclusion include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location, International Journal of African Development v.2 n.2 Spring 2015 5 personal habits, appearance, education, religion, and political affiliation. The definition of social inclusion emphasizes the relationship of dignity and well-being to the impact of exclusion and identity formation as well as ability to take part in society. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender disparity as any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of socially constructed gender roles and norms (WHO, 1998) and views gender disparity as an intersection of economic inequality and racial or ethnic hierarchy. Social categorization often generates judgments about an individual’s capacity to function effectively, even though, Blustein (2006) indicates that these phenotype results in “no inherent meaning” (p. 154). Ongoing entrenchment of and repeated exposure to social categorizations fortifies social barriers against women of color’s access to leadership positions. The few women of color who leap over these hurdles find pushback from additional barriers related to their performance, interpersonal relations, and ability to network. The World Bank identifies six core governance indicators. The governance indicator of voice and accountability hold particular relevance to this discussion of women’s access to leadership roles. The invisibility of women, and specifically women of color, in academic leadership is tantamount to the exclusion and denial of women’s voices, which indicates lack of full accountability on the part of leaders. Without audible voices, women cannot expect their issues and concerns, innovation and intuition, to receive thorough exploration, value assessment, incorporation, and resolution. In 1995, The Glass Ceiling Commission (TGCC) categorized barriers to the appointment of women and minorities to top leadership positions; TGCC identified these categories as societal, governmental, internal business, and business structural barriers. Of primary interest to this examination are the societal barriers to opportunity and attainment, which include prejudice, and bias, and culture-, gender-, and color-based differences, and which are demonstrated