Thomas Kvan M A (Cantab), M Arch (Calif) Designing Together Apart Computer Supported Collaborative Design in Architecture Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The Open University Milton Keynes England Discipline Design and Innovation Submitted: December 1998 Revised: June 1999 DESIGNING TOGETHER APART i ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................VII PUBLISHED WORK................................................................................................................ VIII ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................. IX 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................1 1.1 PROPOSITION OF THIS THESIS..............................................................................................6 1.2 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS.................................................................................................9 2 DESIGNING TOGETHER APART ...................................................................................10 2.1 AN OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................12 2.1.1 Technology in practices...........................................................................................14 2.1.2 Virtual design studios ..............................................................................................17 2.2 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN..................................................................................................19 2.2.1 Designing together...................................................................................................24 2.2.2 Supporting design excellence...................................................................................27 2.2.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................35 2.3 WHAT IS COLLABORATION?..............................................................................................36 2.3.1 Collaboration and Co-operation .............................................................................37 2.3.2 Close coupled or loose coupled? .............................................................................40 2.3.3 The contribution of roles..........................................................................................45 2.3.4 Summary ..................................................................................................................51 2.4 DESIGN METHODS.............................................................................................................51 2.4.1 The systems approach..............................................................................................52 2.4.2 The reflective approach ...........................................................................................55 2.4.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................59 2.5 MODELS OF COLLABORATIVE DESIGN...............................................................................59 2.5.1 Architectural design as a social activity..................................................................60 2.5.2 Architectural design as a situated activity...............................................................70 2.5.3 A cognitive model of architectural collaboration ....................................................87 2.6 DISCUSSION......................................................................................................................96 2.7 SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................101 2.8 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................105 3 COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE DESIGN .........................................107 3.1 COMMUNICATION FOR COLLABORATION........................................................................108 3.2 A FRAMEWORK FOR CSCW............................................................................................111 3.3 LESSONS LEARNED .........................................................................................................113 3.3.1 Process structure benefits......................................................................................114 3.3.2 Greater participation.............................................................................................116 3.3.3 Better results..........................................................................................................118 3.3.4 Summary ................................................................................................................119 3.4 EXPERIENCES IN COLLABORATIVE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ..........................................119 3.4.1 eCAADe .................................................................................................................121 3.4.2 CAADRIA...............................................................................................................124 3.4.3 ACADIA.................................................................................................................129 3.4.4 Summary ................................................................................................................133 3.5 PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCES .........................................................................................136 3.6 TECHNOLOGIES EMPLOYED ............................................................................................140 3.6.1 GCSS / GXSS .........................................................................................................140 DESIGNING TOGETHER APART ii 3.6.2 GISS.......................................................................................................................142 3.6.3 GPSS......................................................................................................................143 3.6.4 Integrated systems .................................................................................................144 3.6.5 Benefits accrued.....................................................................................................144 3.7 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................145 3.8 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................147 4 TOOLS FOR COLLABORATIVE PROJECTS .............................................................149 4.1 TOOLS FOR COMMUNICATING .........................................................................................150 4.1.1 Typing ....................................................................................................................151 4.1.2 Video......................................................................................................................154 4.1.2.1 Supporting conversation........................................................................................156 4.1.2.2 Simulating collocated offices .................................................................................159 4.1.2.3 Video as data .........................................................................................................160 4.1.2.4 Synchrony and bandwidth......................................................................................161 4.1.2.5 Value derived.........................................................................................................162 4.1.3 Audio......................................................................................................................163 4.1.4 Drawing.................................................................................................................165 4.2 MULTIPLE MODES...........................................................................................................169 4.3 HETEROGENEITY ............................................................................................................170 4.4 DATA SHARING...............................................................................................................173 4.4.1 Sharing files...........................................................................................................174 4.4.2 Shared understanding............................................................................................178 4.4.3 Tracing heritage of ideas.......................................................................................181 4.4.4 Data standards.......................................................................................................182 4.4.5 Interacting on data ................................................................................................184 4.5 PARTICIPANT COMMUNICATION .....................................................................................185 4.5.1 Modes.....................................................................................................................186