Polish Psychological Bulletin 2010, vol 41 (2), 67-73 Original Papers DOI - 10.2478/v10059-010-0009-z Kuba Kryś* May Amusement Serve as a Social Courage Engine? According to Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) “Broaden-and-Built Theory of Positive Emotions”positive emotions have different effects in social life and are based on different mechanisms than negative emotions do. Moreover positive emotions vary among themselves – there are quality differences between them and they shall not be treated only as a single positive mood. Three simple studies presented here and inspired by the Fredrickson’s theory demonstrate that amusement, in comparison to neutral condition as well as to another positive emotion, may serve as a social courage engine. Amused participants were more courageous in the radio (study 1) as well as in the TV interview (study 2) and declared more courage in case of meeting new hypothetical person (study 3). Keywords: positive psychology, amusement, emotion, courage, social psychology, self-confidence Introduction “This theory states that certain discrete positive emotions — including joy, interest, contentment, pride, and The mission of one of the latest brands of psychology - love — although phenomenologically distinct, all share positive psychology - is to understand and foster the factors the ability to broaden people’s momentary thought-action that allow individuals, communities, and societies to repertoires and build their enduring personal resources, flourish (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The focus ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social is on developing human well-being knowledge. What role and psychological resources” (Fredrickson, 2001). She do positive emotions play in this field of interests? supports this point of view with numerous discoveries and Negative emotions have adaptive functions and evoke ample research. automatic specific behavior tendencies. Emotion theorists How does it happen? How do we build up our resources (Frijda, 1986; Lazarus, 1991) postulated that generally through the positive emotions? emotions are related to specific action tendencies. For As most of negative emotions have distinct face-mimic example anger creates a tendency to attack, fear and anxiety signals (Ekman, 1992) nearly all positive emotions are link with the flight/fight eagerness and disgust links with “labeled” with the same mimic expression – smile. The the urge to expel. nature of smiling is closely bounded to Social Psychology. Although the mentioned point of view is mainly based For example one of the Ekman’s co-workers – Fridlund – on the research and data for negative emotions, specific showed (Fridlund, 1991) that people react with a smile in action tendencies have been mentioned to describe the the real or only believed presence of other people. Moreover function of specific positive emotions as well. For example, Fridlund (1994) claims that smile is a communicate. Hence joy is linked with aimless activation, contentment with if smile is a communicate and communication is an act inactivity and interest with attending (Frijda, 1986). Is this between at least two parties then it may be assumed that explanation satisfactory? at least some of positive emotions – those responsible for Fredrickson (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998) claims most episodes of smiling – are of a social nature. Hence it that “the action tendencies identified for positive emotions may be reasonable to look for explanations of how some are notably vague and underspecified”. Contrary to this positive emotions work and what are their functions in the traditional approach Fredrickson (1998, 2001) developed Social Psychology area. new theoretical model which she called “The Broaden-and- On the other hand some research reveal that happy mood Built Theory of Positive Emotions”. leads to mindlessness (Mackie & Worth, 1989). Happy * Institute of Psychology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities, e-mail: [email protected] 67 68 Kuba Kryś moods are associated with heuristic processing strategies, and claims that we turn to paratelic and switch back to telic3 whereas sad moods are associated with systematic mode many times each day. elaboration of information (Bless et al., 1996). Despite the Investigators of the second component of humor - above „negative effects” positive emotions seem to require cognitive-perceptual processes involved in it – claim that more scientific attention – diligent studies on positive most often humor seems to be related to incongruity and emotions would allow preparation of a more detailed map unexpectedness (Gervais & Wilson, 2005). Koestler (1964) of positive emotions and more detailed understanding of suggested the term bisociation to describe the mental positive emotions effects on our behavior. processing of humorous situations. Bisociation appears when an event or idea may be simultaneously perceived Amusement as an emotional component of humor from two (or more) self-consistent but normally unrelated According to Martin (2007) amusement is an emotional and incompatible frames of reference. response to humor which in turn consists of the four Finally the purpose of smile and/or laughter, essential components. The remaining three are (a) a social as expressive components of humor, is not only to context, (b) a cognitive-perceptual process, and (c) the communicate that one is in a playful state, but sometimes vocal-behavioral expression of laughter. Amusement - the actually to induce this state in others as well (Owren & pleasant emotion associated with humor, which is very well Bachorowski, 2003; Russell, Bachorowski, & Fernandez- known to most of people1, may be also described by such Dols, 2003). The potential of laughter to induce positive terms as mirth, hilarity, cheerfulness, and merriment. emotional arousal in listeners is perhaps based on activating Amusement did not attract much attention of the certain specialized brain circuits called mirror-neurons scientific psychology, however humor interested many, (Provine, 2000; Gervais & Wilson, 2005), however this sometimes well known2, researchers. Thus, although there hypothesis need further research. Yet another function of is no much evidence of what happens with amused people, laughter is to influence others: laughter can be a method some conclusions can be reached and predictions made on of supporting someone’s actions (“laughing with”) and the humor or laughter knowledge. on the other hand it may be used to discourage someone’s As mentioned earlier humor is basically a social practices (“laughing at”) (Shiota et al., 2004). Nonetheless phenomenon. We hardly ever joke or laugh on our own and when drawing conclusions about amusement on the base we do it much more often in the presence of other people of knowledge about laughing and/or smiling we should be (Martin & Kuiper, 1999). But even solitary instances of aware that laughing and smiling are very culture-specific laughter may be called “pseudo-social” in nature as sole (Szarota, 2006) as well as that smiling is also an expressive people laugh usually when reading a book or watching a component of other positive emotions. TV (or carrying out similar activity) – laughing person The last emotional component of humor – emotion of somehow is responding to the characters on TV or in a amusement – like other emotions may occur with varying book (Martin, 2007). degrees of intensity, ranging up to mirth and yet above to Furthermore our ability to create humorous situations hilarity (Ruch, 1993). Szabo (2003) has shown that exposure and to amuse one another have evolved as a means of to humorous stimuli may increase mood (which is not very providing us with opportunities to play. Play in turn may surprising). Mobbs (Mobbs et al., 2003) demonstrated that serve a very important social, emotional and cognitive watching humorous cartoons activates reward networks in functions (Bateson, 2005). In fact, all apes (and most the limbic system of the brain. mammals) engage in playful activities when they are Summing up this short review about humor it is worth juveniles. Human beings, unlike most other animals, to note that in many cultures the sense of humor is seen as maintain playful behaviors even in the adulthood, most one of the most desirable characteristics in a prospective notably through humor (Martin, 2007). Apter (1991) mate, and particularly in women’s choice of a male partner described playful activities as paratelic mode of functioning (Feingold, 1992). The interesting question appears: what is specific for 1 Is amusement known only to human beings? Van Hooff and a behavior of amused people and is not just the effect of Preuschoft (2003) described the facial expression seen in monkeys and positive mood? apes which they called „the play face”. It occurs while the animals are involved in social play. Moreover Panksepp and his colleagues (Pank- sepp & Burgdorf, 2000; Panksepp & Burgdorf, 2003) provided intriguing Positive emotions may have different functions evidence that a form of laughter may even exist in rats. May it be like this As Fredrickson (2001) noticed positive emotions vary that the evolutionary origins of the relaxed open-mouth play face, which among themselves. Amusement, amae, acceptance, hope, in humans seems to have evolved into laughter, appear to go back many happiness, joy, glee, gladness, cheerfulness, flow, fascination, millions of years? interest, mirth, pleasure, elation, bliss, ecstasy, delight, 2 Darwin (1872), Freud (1905a,