ORIGINAL ARTICLE Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(3), pp. 308–314 (2019) DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.014 First published online June 26, 2019 “Go ask Alice, when she’s 10-feet tall”: Psychosocial correlates to lifetime LSD use among a national sample of US adults ROBERT ANDREW YOCKEY1*, KEITH A. KING1,2 and REBECCA A. VIDOUREK1,2 1Health Promotion and Education Program, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA 2Center for Prevention Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA (Received: February 16, 2019; accepted: May 12, 2019) Introduction: Once thought a rarely used drug, LSD use is steadily increasing among US adults. A greater understanding of social factors and psychological determinants leading to lifetime LSD use can assist health educators and professionals in treating this growing problem. This study analyzed psychosocial factors related to LSD use among a national sample of adults. Methods: A secondary data analysis of the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health was performed. Results: Results from the final multivariate logistic regression revealed that those who were male, African American or Hispanic, used alcohol, ecstasy, marijuana, inhalants, cocaine, and cigarettes before the age of 21 years, thought about suicide, got a kick out of doing things risky, and tested oneself to do risky things were more likely to use LSD. Conclusions: This suggests that psychodynamic processes, for example, possible activation of emotional conflicts – can take place spontaneously – during ayahuasca intake in this particular setting. Some participants attributed symbolic meaning to the visionary content, which was more likely to take place in psychotherapeutically motivated clients. The specific setting influence as well as corresponding expectations of the participants in native wisdom could have considerable influence on experiences and interpretations, such as communication with entities as well as receiving personal teachings. Keywords: LSD, psychosocial factors, substance use INTRODUCTION include anxiety, mood swings, visual illusions, and distor- tions of body image (Pagliaro & Pagliaro, 2012). Colloquially known as “acid,”“Golden Dragon,” and “Yel- The role of sex and ethnic differences remains unclear, low sunshine,” lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) use is a particularly due to potential confounding variables, which health problem in the USA. Part of a broader class of drugs combined psychedelic substances. When examining psy- known as psychedelics or hallucinogens, previous research chedelic substances, Palamar, Acosta, Sherman, Ompad, estimated that a total of 30 million adults used psychedelics and Cleland (2016) found that males were more likely to in their lifetime (Krebs & Johansen, 2013). Data from the use LSD and other substances than females. Examining 2014 Global Drug Survey estimate the worldwide preva- LSD alone, the available literature suggests that no sex lence of LSD use to be 10.1%. Repeated use of LSD and differences occur (Smart & Fejer, 1969). Regarding ethnic- other hallucinogens has been linked to a myriad of health ity, Rickert, Siquiera, Dale, and Wiemann (2003) found a consequences including deficits in neurological processing, higher prevalence of LSD use among Caucasian females panic reactions, and substance use disorders (Abraham & than females of other ethnic counterparts. Aldridge, 1993; Liechti, 2017; Shalit, Rehm, & Lev-Ran, Several reasons for LSD use have been posited. Smart and 2019). Interestingly though, some have asserted the poten- Fejer (1969) interviewed LSD users and found that users tial beneficial uses of hallucinogens in psychological thera- perceived that LSD helped them to gain deeper insights to pies (e.g., reduced depression and enhanced mood) of themselves, meditate, and become more focused in a variety hallucinogen use (Hendricks, Thorne, Clarke, Coombs, & of social situations. McGlothlin and Arnold (1971)found Johnson, 2015). Nevertheless, the overall efficacy of hallu- LSD users become more accepting and tolerant of themselves cinogenic therapy is greatly in need of case–control studies and others through taking LSD. Moreover, research by to verify such claims. Barron, Lowinger, and Ebner (1970) found that sexual Specifically, with LSD, several pernicious consequences enhancement, escape, and sensory curiosity were alternative can occur as a result of use. LSD is known to affect reasons offered for using LSD. Although much attention has neurocognition through the 5-HT-2A receptors, an important part of memory (Pagliaro & Pagliaro, 2012). Moreover, * Corresponding author: Robert Andrew Yockey, MS, Graduate recent research from Schmidt et al. (2018) found that acute Assistant; Health Promotion and Education Program, 2600 Clifton LSD use impairs inhibitory performance and reduce neocor- Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0068, USA; Phone/Fax: +1 513 tical activity. Other somatic toxicities, despite short-lived, can 442 9586; E-mail: [email protected] This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original author and source are credited, a link to the CC License is provided, and changes – if any – are indicated. © 2019 The Author(s) Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/28/21 06:07 AM UTC LSD use among adults been devoted to such reasons, psychosocial risk factors need inhalants before the age of 21 years?” Responses were to be further explored. The purpose of this study was to dichotomous in nature (1 = “yes” and 0 = “no”). examine specific risk factors related to lifetime LSD use among a national sample of adults. Psychosocial correlates A paucity of recent literature exists examining the factors associated with lifetime LSD use. Additional studies are To evaluate psychosocial correlates, the NSDUH incorporates warranted examining correlates with LSD use (Liechti, 10 questions regarding a variety of psychological statuses and 2017). Moreover, most of the literature has combined psy- problems. Several questions were chosen from a team “ chedelic substances, instead of solely investigating LSD. A consensus. The following questions were asked: Have you fl ” closer examination of specific psychosocial risk factors relat- driven under the in uence of alcohol within the past year?, “ ”“ ed to lifetime LSD use can assist health educators and Do you get a real kick out of doing risky things?, Do you ”“ professionals develop well-designed interventions to mitigate like to test yourself by doing risky things?, Do you wear a ”“ this growing problem. Additional research is needed from seatbelt when driving a car?, Have you ever thought about ”“ national, representative samples. Therefore, this study exam- suicide?, Do you feel sad/empty, depressed most of the day ”“ ined psychological variables and health risk factors related to or discouraged?, Have you ever lost interest or pleasure in ”“ ”“ lifetime and past-year LSD use among a national sample of most things?, Do you have sleep problems?, Have you ”“ adults in the USA. Specifically, this study sought out to felt worthless nearly every day?, How often have you felt ” “ address the following: (a) What percentage of adults report nervousinpast30days?, and Do you have the inability to ” using LSD in their lifetime?, (b) Does lifetime LSD use differ concentrate or make decisions? Responses were dichoto- = “ ” = “ ” = “ based on sex and race?, (c) Does lifetime LSD use differ mous in nature (1 yes and 0 no or 1 all/most of the ” = “ ” based on prior drug use before the age of 21 years?, (d) Does time and 0 none of the time ). lifetime LSD use differ based on psychosocial correlates? Procedures METHODS The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Adminis- tration and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Instrument Services sponsor the NSDUH. To secure privacy and confi- dentiality, all interviews were conducted on the computer. No In this study, a secondary analysis of the 2017 National identifying information was revealed or asked on the survey. Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) was performed. Both English and Spanish interviews were written. Both The participants were delimited to individuals ranging 18–25 versions had the same content. Household participation was years old in the US and District of Columbia (n = 13,840). voluntary, and no other household could have replaced the Recruitment of participants took place by the Research requested participants. Upon completion of the interview, Triangle Institute (RTI). The RTI recruited participants participants were compensated with $30. The NSDUH has using multistage area probability methods to select non- been shown to have good reliability and validity (Center for representative samples of the US citizens. All adults who Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2018). participated in the NSDUH self-identified as ages 18–25 years. This study was granted approval by the institutional Data analysis review board at the University of Cincinnati. The US Federal Government designed the survey to provide nationwide LSD All data were analyzed in Stata (v. 15.0, STATACorp., use behaviors among 18- to 25-year olds. There were three College Station, TX, USA) to account for the complex sections utilized from the NSDUH for this study: Lifetime sampling design. Frequency distributions were used to LSD Use, Prior Substance Use, and Psychosocial Correlates. calculate demographics and psychosocial