THE IMPLEMENTATION AND EFFECTIVENESS OF TRANSPORT DEMAND MANAGEMENT MEASURES This page intentionally left blank The Implementation and Effectiveness of Transport Demand Management Measures An International Perspective Edited by STEPHEN ISON Loughborough University, UK TOM RYE Napier University, UK © Stephen Ison and Tom Rye 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. Stephen Ison and Tom Rye have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the editors of this work. Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company Gower House Suite 420 Croft Road 101 Cherry Street Aldershot Burlington, VT 05401-4405 Hampshire GU11 3HR USA England www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data The implementation and effectiveness of transport demand management measures : an international perspective 1. Traffic congestion - Prevention 2. Traffic flow - Management I. Ison, Stephen II. Rye, Tom 388.4'1312 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ison, Stephen. The implementation and effectiveness of transport demand management measures : an international perspective / by Stephen Ison and Tom Rye. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7546-4953-3 1. Traffic congestion--Prevention. 2. Traffic flow--Management. I. Rye, Tom. II. Title. HE336.C64I76 2008 388.4'1312--dc22 2008004796 ISBN 978 0 7546 4953 3 Contents List of Figures vii List of Tables ix List of Contributors xi 1 Introduction: TDM Measures and their Implementation 1 Stephen Ison and Tom Rye 2 Purchase, Circulation and Fuel Taxation 13 Stephen Potter 3 Road User Charging 29 Kenneth Button and Henry Vega 4 The Role of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) in Implementing Road Pricing for Congestion Management 49 David Gillen 5 The Land Use and Local Economic Impacts of Congestion Charging 75 David Banister 6 Tradable Driving Rights in Urban Areas: Their Potential for Tackling Congestion and Traffic-Related Pollution 95 Charles Raux 7 The Politics and Economics of Parking on Campus 121 Donald Shoup 8 A View of Parking Policy in an Australian City 151 William Young 9 Park and Ride 165 Stuart Meek 10 Public Transport Subsidisation 189 John Preston 11 The Substitution of Communications for Travel? 211 Glenn Lyons, Sendy Farag and Hebba Haddad 12 Travel Plans 233 Marcus Enoch and Lian Zhang Index 257 This page intentionally left blank List of Figures Figure 3.1 Simplified diagram of the effects of road pricing 33 Figure 4.1 Grouping road-pricing scheme design criteria 52 Figure 4.2 Illustration of the gap between the two primary objectives of road pricing 62 Figure 5.1 Congestion charging in London 83 Figure 5.2 The congestion charging area in London 84 Figure 6.1 The effects of congestion pricing or tradable driving rights on travel demand 115 Figure 7.1 Cost per parking space added by fifteen parking structures 124 Figure 7.2 UCLA parking permit fee history 126 Figure 7.3 Performance-based parking prices 137 Figure 9.1 The components of park and ride 166 Figure 10.1 Operator economies of scale 190 Figure 10.2 The Mohring effect 191 Figure 10.3 Support for bus services in Great Britain (revenue support and concessionary fares) 198 Figure 10.4 Subsidy for national railways 198 Figure 10.5 Change in welfare (large radial, competed route (incumbent five buses an hour, entrant two buses an hour)) 202 Figure 12.1 Mapping the development of travel plans in the UK 251 This page intentionally left blank List of Tables Table 1.1 TDM measures 1 Table 2.1 UK Vehicle Excise Duty rates (£ per year) 2007–2008 (for private vehicles registered from March 2001) 15 Table 2.2 Tax and retail price of premium unleaded petrol, 2008 19 Table 2.3 Car driver distance travelled per year and fuel duty paid by income quintile, 2005 20 Table 3.1 Technical tasks for various forms of road charging 30 Table 3.2 Characteristics of eight major road pricing schemes 35 Table 3.3 Effects of road pricing 43 Table 4.1 ITS technology classification 58 Table 4.2 Re-classifying ITS components based on their primary functionalities 60 Table 4.3 Matching ITS applications’ functionalities with steps in toll process 63 Table 4.4 Cost components of ITS 65 Table 4.5 ITS components used in applications of road pricing 71 Table 5.1 Estimated traffic impacts and economic benefits of a £5 area licence for Central London 82 Table 5.2 Potential businesses relocating 88 Table 5.3 Perceived influence on business performance 2004 (%) 89 Table 5.4 Employees by business sector (January 2007) and changes in sales from 2003–2004 (%) 90 Table 6.1 European road vehicle emissions standards 102 Table 6.2 Appropriateness of TP targets for different nuisances in urban areas 103 Table 6.3 Weighting factors for driving rights 108 Table 6.4 Daily average number of trips by car 112 Table 7.1 Faculty/staff bus share for commuting 145 Table 8.1 Parking prices in Australian cities 156 Table 8.2 Impact of parking policies on work trips 159 Table 8.3 Impact of policies on business trips 160 Table 8.4 Impact of policies on shopping trips 161 Table 9.1 Park and ride user survey evidence 177 Table 10.1 Level of subsidy and fares for European urban bus services (1995) 191 Table 10.2 Support for local bus services (£m, 2003/2004) 196 Table 10.3 Marginal returns to subsidy (1980/1981) 200 x The Implementation and Effectiveness of Transport Demand Management Measures Table 10.4 Incremental returns to bus subsidy (1997) – based on 10% fares reduction or 10% service increase 201 Table 10.5 Welfare maximisation subject to existing budget constraints: Illustrative fares and service level changes 203 Table 12.1 Tools of travel planning 236 Table 12.2 Level of travel plan take-up (1998–2006) 241 Table 12.3 Most common reasons to implement travel plans 245 List of Contributors David Banister Transport Studies Unit, Oxford University, UK Ken Button School of Public Policy, George Mason University, US Marcus Enoch Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University Sendy Farag Centre for Transport and Society, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of the West of England, UK David Gillen Sauder School of Business, Centre for Transportation Studies University of British Columbia, Canada Hebba Haddad Centre for Transport and Society, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of the West of England, UK Stephen Ison Transport Studies Group, Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, UK Glenn Lyons Centre for Transport and Society, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of the West of England, UK Stuart Meek Transport Studies Group, Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, UK Stephen Potter Department of Design, Development, Environment and Materials, Faculty of Maths, Computing and Technology, the Open University, UK John Preston Transportation Research Group, School of Civil Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, UK Charles Raux Transport Economics Laboratory (LET), CNRS, University of Lyon, France Tom Rye School of the Built Environment/Transport Research Institute Napier University, UK Donald Shoup Department of Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles, US Henry Vega School of Public Policy, George Mason University, US Bill Young Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia Lian Zhang Jacobs Consultancy This page intentionally left blank Chapter 1 Introduction: TDM Measures and their Implementation Stephen Ison and Tom Rye Introduction The basic tenet of Transport Demand Management (TDM) is the influencing of individuals travel behaviour. As defined by Meyer (1999) TDM can be seen as ‘any action or set of actions aimed at influencing people’s travel behaviour in such a way that alternative mobility options are presented and/or congestion is reduced’. Table 1.1 classifies a number of TDM measures aimed at influencing peoples travel behaviour. Table 1.1 TDM measures Type Measures * Fuel Tax * Road user charging * Parking charges Economic Measures * Tradable permits (combined with regulation by quantity) * Public transport subsidisation * Land use and transportation strategies such as: car free developments and location of new Land use developments * Park and Ride Facilities Information for * Travel Information before a trip is undertaken Travellers * Car Sharing Substitution of * Teleworking Communications * E-shopping for Travel * Parking Controls Administrative * Pedestrianised Zones Measures * Alternative working patterns 2 The Implementation and Effectiveness of Transport Demand Management Measures The list of measures is by no means exhaustive but is indicative of the types of measures available to transport professionals as a means of bringing about a change in travel behaviour. Clearly with a number of these measures proposed there are issues relating to effectiveness, acceptance and implementation. A TDM measure seeks to manage the demand for travel by drive alone private car, rather than catering for that demand, or managing the road system on which that car travels. TDM measures are aimed at influencing mode choice, trip length, the frequency of trips and the route taken. They can be applied to meeting specific goals, namely to reduce congestion, to improve air quality or to reduce the reliance on energy. In general TDM has been associated with addressing congestion, as a result of commuting and this is the main focus of the book. The book seeks to review the nature of particular TDM measures, their effectiveness and issues relating to implementation and how the barriers to the implementation of the respective measures may be overcome. In this way it is intended to be of use both to academics and practitioners.