University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) COMMUNITY-BASED SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ON COMMONAGES: AN ALTERNATIVE TO TRADITIONAL LAND REFORM IN NAMAQUALAND, NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE SHARMLA GOVENDER-VAN WYK Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor in the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, University of Pretoria Department of Tourism Management October 2006 University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) DECLARATION I, Sharmla Govender-van Wyk hereby declare that the thesis for the Philosophiae Doctor degree at the University of Pretoria, hereby submitted by me, has not previously been submitted for a degree at this or any other university, and it is my own work in design and execution and that all reference material contained therein has been duly acknowledged. …………………………………………… Signature …………………………………………… Date ii University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) CONTENTS DECLARATION ii LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF ANNEXURES xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii ABSTRACT xiv ACRONYMS xx Chapter 1 2 GENERAL ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY 2 1.1 INTRODUCTION 2 1.2 LAND REFORM AS PART OF THE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT DEBATE 3 1.3 LAND REFORM IN SOUTH AFRICA 6 1.3.1 Tenure Reform 6 1.3.2 Restitution 7 1.3.3 Redistribution 7 1.4 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AS PART OF THE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT DEBATE 8 1.4.1 Definitions of the term sustainable tourism 8 1.4.2 Principles of sustainable tourism 11 1.5 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA 12 1.5.1 The importance of sustainable tourism for South Africa 13 1.5.2 Measures to enhance sustainable tourism in South Africa 14 1.6 FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 16 1.7 RESEARCH AIM AND QUESTION 17 1.8 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 18 1.9 METHODOLOGICAL THEORY 19 1.9.1 Critical social science theory 19 1.9.2 Case-study approach 20 1.10 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY 23 1.11 CONCLUSION 25 iii University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) Chapter 2 A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF LAND REDISTRIBUTION IN BRAZIL, NAMIBIA, 26 ZIMBABWE AND SOUTH AFRICA 2.1 INTRODUCTION 26 2.2 LAND REDISTRIBUTION IN BRAZIL (1985-2005) 27 2.2.1 Reasons for pursuing a land redistribution agenda 27 2.2.2 Land redistribution policies in Brazil 27 2.2.3 Challenges for Brazilian land redistribution 29 2.3 LAND REDISTRIBUTION IN NAMIBIA (1990-2005) 31 2.3.1 Reasons for pursuing a land redistribution agenda 31 2.3.2 Land redistribution policies in Namibia 31 2.3.3 Challenges for Namibian land redistribution 34 2.4 LAND REDISTRIBUTION IN ZIMBABWE (1980-2005) 36 2.4.1 Reasons for pursuing a land redistribution agenda 36 2.4.2 Land redistribution policies in Zimbabwe 36 2.4.3 Challenges for Zimbabwean land redistribution 37 2.5 LAND REDISTRIBUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA (1994-2005) 40 2.5.1 Reasons for pursuing a land redistribution agenda 40 2.5.2 Land redistribution policies in South Africa 41 2.5.2.1 The Settlement/Land Acquisition Grant (SLAG): 1994-1999 41 2.5.2.2 Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development (LRAD): 2001 43 2.5.2.3 Challenges for the South African land redistribution programme in terms of the LRAD sub-programme 46 2.5.2.4 DLA’s commonage sub-programme: 1997- 47 2.5.2.5 Challenges for the South African land redistribution pro-gramme in terms of the commonage sub-programme 49 2.6 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND LAND REDISTRIBUTION 51 2.7 STRATEGIC LESSONS FOR SOUTH AFRICA’S LAND REDISTRIBUTION PROGRAMME 56 2.8 CONCLUSION 57 Chapter 3 RELEVANCE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM FOR LAND REDISTRIBUTION 59 3.1 INTRODUCTION 59 3.2 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AS A TOOL FOR MACRO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 60 3.2.1 Positive macro-economic impacts of sustainable tourism 60 3.2.2 Negative macro-economic impacts of sustainable tourism 61 3.3 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM FOR MICRO-ECONOMIC (LIVELIHOODS) DEVELOPMENT 63 3.3.1 Ways in which sustainable tourism can affect livelihood security 64 3.3.2 Ways in which sustainable tourism supports or conflicts with other livelihood activities 64 3.3.2.1 Supports other livelihood options in Namibia 64 3.3.2.2 Conflicts with other livelihood options in Indonesia and Ethiopia 65 iv University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) 3.3.3 Livelihoods and the pro-poor tourism angle 66 3.4 SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 67 3.4.1 Positive socio-cultural impacts 67 3.4.2 Negative socio-cultural impacts 68 3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 70 3.5.1 Positive environmental impacts 70 3.5.2 Negative environmental impacts 71 3.6 ECOTOURISM 72 3.6.1 Definitions 72 3.6.2 Ecotourism and the sustainability factor 75 3.6.3 Ecotourism: local and international case studies 77 3.6.3.1 The Amadiba Horse and Hiking Trail, Eastern Cape, South Africa 77 3.6.3.2 The Lekgophung Tourism Lodge Initiative, North West Province, South Africa 79 3.6.3.3 The Annapurna Conservation Area Project in Nepal 80 3.6.3.4 The Cofan of Zabalo in Ecuador, South America 83 3.6.4 Key challenges facing the ecotourism industry 85 3.7 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM THROUGH COMMUNITY-BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CBNRM) 86 3.7.1 Zimbabwe 87 3.7.2 Tanzania 88 3.7.3 Namibia 90 3.7.4 South Africa 91 3.7.5 The relevance of sustainable tourism through CBNRM for commonage development 92 3.8 TOURISM IN PERIPHERAL AREAS 93 3.9 DESERT TOURISM 96 3.9.1 Sustainable desert tourism in Algeria 99 3.9.2 Sustainable desert tourism in Australia 102 3.9.3 Sustainable desert tourism in Namibia 104 3.10 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 107 3.11 INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLANNING (IDP) APPROACH 111 3.11.1 Phase 1: Analysis 114 3.11.2 Phase 2: Development strategies 116 3.11.3 Phase 3: Projects 117 3.11.4 Phase 4: Integration 118 3.11.5 Phase 5: Approval 118 3.11.5.1 Implementation 119 3.11.5.2 Monitoring, evaluation, feedback and control 119 3.12 CONCLUSION 121 Chapter 4 STUDY METHODOLOGY 123 4.1 INTRODUCTION 123 4.2 UTILISATION OF THE CASE-STUDY APPROACH 123 4.2.1 Credibility and dependability 124 4.2.2 Confirmability 126 4.2.3 Transferability 128 v University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) 4.3 THE SIX-STEP CASE-STUDY APPROACH 128 Step 1: Determination and definition of the research questions and 129 literature review 129 Step 2: Case-study selection and determination of the data-gathering and analysis techniques 130 Step 3: Preparations to collect the data 135 Step 4: Collection of the data 135 Step 5: Analyses of data 139 Step 6: Proposition of recommendations based on the results obtained from the data 141 4.4 CONCLUSION 142 Chapter 5 COMMONAGE PROJECTS IN NAMAQUALAND 143 5.1 INTRODUCTION 143 5.2 LAND-USE IN THE NORTHERN CAPE 143 5.3 LAND REFORM IN THE NORTHERN CAPE 144 5.4 LAND REFORM IN NAMAQUALAND 145 5.4.1 Historical overview of land dispossession in Namaqualand 145 5.4.2 From land dispossession to land reform 146 5.4.3 Land-use in Namaqualand 147 5.4.4 DLA commonage sub-programme in Namaqualand 148 5.4.5 Relevance of the DLA commonage sub-programme and land redistribution for Namaqualand 150 5.5 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS WITH COMMONAGE USERS AND AUTHORITIES DEALING WITH COMMONAGES 151 5.5.1 Introduction 151 5.5.2 Access to land and land-use 154 5.5.2.1 Reasons for accessing the commonages 154 5.5.2.2 Land tenure arrangements within the commonage projects 156 5.5.3 Livestock farming 157 5.5.4 Commonage management 159 5.5.4.1 The management abilities of the Commonage Management Committees (CMCs) 160 5.5.4.2 The management abilities of municipalities 161 5.5.5 Farming and support received on commonages 162 5.5.5.1 Capacity building 163 5.5.5.2 Improvement in livelihoods 164 5.5.6 Commonage users’ perceptions of tourism 165 5.5.6.1 Expression of interest in tourism on commonages 165 5.5.6.2 Support for future sustainable tourism development on commonages 165 5.5.6.3 Comparison of perceptions in relation to tourism and livestock farming 167 5.6 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM POSSIBILITIES ON THREE OF THE COMMONAGE FARMS 168 5.7 SWOT MATRIX FOR THE SELECTED COMMONAGE PROJECTS 170 5.8 CONCLUSION 172 vi University of Pretoria etd – Govender-Van Wyk, S (2007) Chapter 6 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN EKSTEENFONTEIN (RICHTERSVELD), NAMAQUALAND 174 6.1 INTRODUCTION 174 6.2 TOURISM IN THE NORTHERN CAPE 175 6.3 TOURISM IN NAMAQUALAND 179 6.4 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE RICHTERSVELD AND EKSTEENFONTEIN 181 6.5 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN THE RICHTERSVELD AND EKSTEENFONTEIN 183 6.5.1 The Eksteenfontein Guesthouse 185 6.5.2 The Rooiberg Conservancy: guesthouse and campsite 186 6.6 ANALYSIS OF THE ROOIBERG CONSERVANCY PROJECT 189 6.6.1 Introduction 189 6.6.2 Community profile 190 6.6.3 Community participation in the Rooiberg Conservancy project 194 6.6.4 Skills development 194 6.6.5 Conservancy management 197 6.6.5.1 Funding and other arrangements 201 6.6.5.2 Marketing 203 6.6.6 Improvement in livelihoods 203 6.6.7 Sustainable tourism development in Eksteenfontein (present and future) 205 6.7 SWOT MATRIX FOR THE CONSERVANCY PROJECT 210 6.8 CONCLUSION 213 Chapter 7 214 SYNTHESIS 214 7.1 INTRODUCTION 214 7.2 REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH AIM AND QUESTIONS 214 7.3 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM PLANNING GUIDELINES FOR COMMONAGES 217 7.3.1 The planning process 217 7.3.2 Baseline information 219 7.3.2.1 Stakeholder analysis 219 7.3.2.2 Ecological significance 219 7.3.2.3 Developmental analysis 220 7.3.3 Vision and goals 220 7.3.4 Objectives 221 7.3.4.1 General objectives 221 7.3.4.2 Marketing objectives 222 7.3.5 Legislation and control measures 223 7.3.6 Impact management and mitigation 223 7.3.7 Communication and decision making 224 7.3.8 Implementation including funding incentives 225 7.3.9 Monitoring, evaluation, feedback and control 225 7.3.9.1