FASHIONING FEMININITY FOR WAR: MATERIAL CULTURE AND GENDER PERFORMANCE IN THE WAC AND WAVES DURING WORLD WAR II by AMANDA MAE WILLEY B.A., New Mexico State University, 2003 M.A., Kansas State University, 2006 AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2015 Abstract In 1942, the U.S. Army and Navy announced the creation of their respective women’s military services: the WAAC/WAC and the WAVES.1 Although American women had served alongside the military in past conflicts, the creation of women’s military corps caused uproar in American society. Placing women directly into the armed services called into question cultural expectations about “masculinity” and “femininity.” Thus, the women’s corps had to be justified to the public in accordance with American cultural assumptions regarding proper gender roles. “Fashioning Femininity for War: Material Culture and Gender Performance in the WAC and WAVES during World War II” focuses on the role of material culture in communicating a feminine image of the WAC and WAVES to the American public as well as the ways in which servicewomen engaged material culture to fashion and perform a feminine identity compatible with contemporary understandings of “femininity.” Material culture served as a mechanism to resolve public concerns regarding both the femininity and the function of women in the military. WAC and WAVES material culture linked their wearers with stereotyped characteristics specifically related to contemporary meanings of “femininity” celebrated by American society, while at the same time associating them with military organizations doing vital war work. Ultimately, the WAVES were more successful in their manipulations of material culture than the WAC, communicating both femininity and function in a way that was complementary to the established gender hierarchy. Therefore, the WAVES enjoyed a prestigious position in the mind of the American public. 1 The WAAC (The Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps) existed from May 1942 to September 1943 when it was replaced by the WAC (Women’s Army Corps); WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Services) This dissertation also contributes to the ongoing historiographical debate regarding World War II as a turning point for women’s liberation, arguing that while the seeds of women’s liberation were sown in women’s wartime activities, those same wartime women were firmly convinced that their rightful place was in the private rather than the public sphere. The war created an opportunity to reevaluate gender roles but it would take some time before those reevaluations bore fruit. FASHIONING FEMININITY FOR WAR: MATERIAL CULTURE AND GENDER PERFORMANCE IN THE WAC AND WAVES DURING WORLD WAR II by AMANDA MAE WILLEY B.A., New Mexico State University, 2003 M.A., Kansas State University, 2006 A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2015 Approved by: Major Professor Sue Zschoche Copyright AMANDA MAE WILLEY 2015 Abstract In 1942, the U.S. Army and Navy announced the creation of their respective women’s military services: the WAAC/WAC and the WAVES.2 Although American women had served alongside the military in past conflicts, the creation of women’s military corps caused uproar in American society. Placing women directly into the armed services called into question cultural expectations about “masculinity” and “femininity.” Thus, the women’s corps had to be justified to the public in accordance with American cultural assumptions regarding proper gender roles. “Fashioning Femininity for War: Material Culture and Gender Performance in the WAC and WAVES during World War II” focuses on the role of material culture in communicating a feminine image of the WAC and WAVES to the American public as well as the ways in which servicewomen engaged material culture to fashion and perform a feminine identity compatible with contemporary understandings of “femininity.” Material culture served as a mechanism to resolve public concerns regarding both the femininity and the function of women in the military. WAC and WAVES material culture linked their wearers with stereotyped characteristics specifically related to contemporary meanings of “femininity” celebrated by American society, while at the same time associating them with military organizations doing vital war work. Ultimately, the WAVES were more successful in their manipulations of material culture than the WAC, communicating both femininity and function in a way that was complementary to the established gender hierarchy. Therefore, the WAVES enjoyed a prestigious position in the mind of the American public. 2 The WAAC (The Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps) existed from May 1942 to September 1943 when it was replaced by the WAC (Women’s Army Corps); WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Services) This dissertation also contributes to the ongoing historiographical debate regarding World War II as a turning point for women’s liberation, arguing that while the seeds of women’s liberation were sown in women’s wartime activities, those same wartime women were firmly convinced that their rightful place was in the private rather than the public sphere. The war created an opportunity to reevaluate gender roles but it would take some time before those reevaluations bore fruit. Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... x Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 - The Little Colonel’s Soldiers and Miss Mac’s College Girls: Public Image and the WAC and WAVES Training Grounds .................................................................................. 44 Chapter 2 - “Now it Looks More Homey:” Femininity in the Barracks ....................................... 93 Chapter 3 - “The Two Best Styles of the Year:” WAC and WAVES Uniforms ........................ 136 Chapter 4 - “Keep Your Beauty on Duty”: Cosmetics in the Military ....................................... 171 Chapter 5 - “We Want to Be Feminine Once More:” Back to Civilian Life .............................. 205 Epilogue ...................................................................................................................................... 246 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 254 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................. 262 viii List of Figures Figure 1. WAC Barracks............................................................................................................ 262 Figure 2. Waves at Hunter College ............................................................................................ 263 Figure 3. WAAC Enlisted Uniforms ......................................................................................... 264 Figure 4. Wacs in Basic Training ............................................................................................... 265 Figure 5. WAVES Dress Blue Uniform .................................................................................... 266 Figure 6. WAVES Summer Dress White Uniform .................................................................... 267 Figure 7. WAC Recruitment Poster ........................................................................................... 268 Figure 8. WAVES Recruitment Poster ...................................................................................... 269 ix Acknowledgements Although it is only my name on the title page of this dissertation, it took a village to get not only this study but also my entire Ph.D. program done. So, to the following members of my village: Dr. Sue Zschoche, who has been a wonderful advisor, counselor, and friend; Dr. Mark Parillo, who has been one of my most engaging professors, most trusted confessors, and most favorite people; Dr. Louise Breen, who sat patiently for hours in Eisenhower 201 getting the technology up and running that would allow me to take classes from a distance and still agreed to serve on my committee; Dr. Brent Maner, who was kind enough to join my committee at the last minute and offer valuable commentary on my final project; Dr. Michele Janette, who walked me through the forest of feminist theory and told me in the nicest ways possible, “No, that’s really not what the author is saying….” Dr. Lou Williams, who has encouraged me and cheered me on both in and out of the classroom since I was a master’s student; Dr. Joe Bailey, who has been a wonderful friend and excellent study-buddy since day one of my doctoral program; Ms. Shelly Reeves, who served as my eyes, ears, hands, and feet when I was not on campus to get paperwork delivered--and sometimes even when I was;