Bodies of Evidence: Economy and Identity within Kura Araxes Cemeteries in Early Bronze Age Transcaucasia By Alice Netherton Alice Netherton Address: Magdalena Moonsstraat 86 2313 ZH, Leiden Email: [email protected] Mobile : 0686365973 Figure: By Author Bodies of Evidence: Economy and Identity within Kura Araxes Cemeteries in Early Bronze Age Transcaucasia Alice Netherton, S1736086 Supervisor: B.S. During Master’s Thesis Specialization: Near Eastern Archaeology Course code: ARCH 1044WY University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden, 4.5.16, Final Version 1 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................7 Chapter 1: Introduction..............................................................................................9 1.1 Topic and Research Problems.................................................................................9 1.2 Research Questions.................................................................................................9 1.3 Methodology and Thesis Layout...........................................................................10 Chapter 2: Conceptualizing the Kura Araxes Cultural Horizon.........................11 2.1 Brief History of Research......................................................................................11 2.2 Problems with Chronology....................................................................................12 2.3 Geography and Environment.................................................................................14 2.4 Characteristics of Kura Araxes Material Culture..................................................16 2.5 The Pots and People Debate: Theories for Kura Araxes Identity and Expansion………....................................................................................................…20 Chapter 3: Mortuary Theory and Methods for the Study of Kura Araxes Cemeteries..................................................................................................................25 3.1 History of the Study of Mortuary Evidence..........................................................25 3.2 Mortuary Remains and Ethnic Identity.................................................................27 3.3 Introduction to Previous Deliberations on Kura Araxes Burial Evidence.............30 3.4 Methodology: Organization of Kura Araxes Burial Evidence.............................33 Chapter 4: Kura Araxes Cemeteries in Transcaucasia and the Greater Near East....................................................................................................................37 4.1 Kura Araxes Cemeteries in Georgia......................................................................37 4.1.1 The Shida Kartli Province..................................................................................37 Aradetis Orgora...........................................................................................................38 Dzaghina West.............................................................................................................39 Khashuri Natsargora...................................................................................................39 Kvatskhela....................................................................................................................41 Tvlepias Tsqharo.........................................................................................................42 Tqhviavi.......................................................................................................................42 3 Table of Contents Continued… Urbnisi.........................................................................................................................42 4.1.2 The Kvemo Kartli Province of Georgia..............................................................43 Kiketi............................................................................................................................43 Nachivchavebi..............................................................................................................44 Samshvilde...................................................................................................................45 4.1.3 The Samtskhe- Javakheti Province of Georgia...................................................46 Amiranis Gora.............................................................................................................46 Chobareti.....................................................................................................................48 Tiselis Seri...................................................................................................................48 4.2 Kura Araxes Cemeteries in Armenia.....................................................................50 4.2.1 The Shirak Province...........................................................................................50 Keti I, II, III..................................................................................................................51 Lanjik...........................................................................................................................52 4.2.2 Other Armenian Provinces.................................................................................52 Elar..............................................................................................................................53 Kalavan I.....................................................................................................................54 Talin.............................................................................................................................55 Tsaghkalanj..................................................................................................................56 4.3 Cemeteries in Azerbaijan and Northwestern Iran; Anatolia and the Upper Euphrates; and the Southern Levant............................................................................58 4.3.1 Azerbaijan and Northwestern Iran......................................................................58 Mentesh Tepe...............................................................................................................59 Uzun Rama...................................................................................................................60 4.3.2 Anatolia and the Upper Euphrates......................................................................61 Arslantepe....................................................................................................................62 Carchemish..................................................................................................................63 Suyataği.......................................................................................................................63 4.3.3 The Southern Levant..........................................................................................64 ‘Afula...........................................................................................................................66 Jericho.........................................................................................................................66 4 Table of Contents Continued… Chapter 5: Analysis...................................................................................................69 5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................69 5.2 Burial Types...........................................................................................................70 5.3 Cemetery and Burial Type Locations....................................................................72 5.4 Skeletal Remains and Inhumations........................................................................75 Primary vs. Secondary Inhumations............................................................................75 Collective vs. Individual Graves..................................................................................76 Gender and Age...........................................................................................................80 Unique Rituals of the Dead..........................................................................................82 5.5 Grave Goods..........................................................................................................83 5.6 Chronological Kura Araxes Phases.......................................................................87 5.7 Conclusion of Analysis..........................................................................................89 Chapter 6: Discussion................................................................................................91 6.1 Interactions between Pastoralism and Agriculture................................................91 6.2 Transitions in Kura Araxes Subsistence Strategies and Ethnic Identity...............92 KA I..............................................................................................................................95 KA II............................................................................................................................96 KA III...........................................................................................................................97 Migration.....................................................................................................................98