LANGUAGE, LITERACY AND IDENTITY PRACTICES INFLUENCING ACCULTURATION IN IMMIGRANT/MIGRANT NEPALESE FAMILIES – AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY Nettie Boivin PhD University of York Education Department for Doctor of Philosophy March 2013 1 ABSTRACT: This thesis is an ethnographic study which investigates the practices of language maintenance and ethnic identity affiliation for immigrant/migrant Nepalese families with primary to middle school children in the United Kingdom. The thesis investigates the connection between two larger fields of research; language maintenance and ethnic identity affiliation. Previously, research investigated one area or the other. After initial interviews with the family members it was determined from investigation into past exposure and present participation in the various practices of both ethnic identity and language maintenance that deeper investigation needed to occur. Finally, it was determined that in the prior research none had examined differences between family members and reasons for these variations. The thesis presents an ethnographic comparative case study analysis of three Nepalese families using a three-tiered macro, micro, and internal theoretical framework in conjunction with a newly redefined acculturation continuum. Observation, which was participatory, occurred in various contexts during a nine month period. In conjunction with these observation sessions, semi-structured interviews regarding present participation in language maintenance and ethnic identity practices, and historical narrative interviews investigating prior exposure to home country, ethnic, cultural, and social literacy practices occurred. In addition, data analysis from the observations used a language maintenance practice checklist based on three types of practices (social language, social literacy, and peripheral ritualised practices) thus discovering whether shifts or loss occurred in families. This analysis revealed a newly termed practice of peripheral ritualised practices. Furthermore, observations discovered that it was not only 2 exposure to home country experience and ethnic customs which play a significant role in shaping social and ethnic identity construction but more informatively the age of exposure. Consequently, the researcher was able to examine not only shifts from children via pre- adolescences to teens, but to assess differences between siblings, an area that had previously not been researched. Finally, the study noted that for children, pre-adolescence and adolescences there is a balance between globalised practices and ethnic practices which need further future investigation. Abstract 3 Content, Figures, Charts and Tables Acknowledgement Contents Chapter One - Introduction 1.0 Introducing the field of study 17 1.1 Research question 23 1.1.2 Thesis aims and outline 24 1.2 Contextualising the case study families 26 1.2.1 Historical context for constructing the perceived Gorkha identity 27 1.2.2 The non-Gorkha Nepalese community context 31 1.2.3 Rural and urban context in Nepal 33 1.2.4 Difference between the immigrant and migrant context 34 Chapter Two – Literature review 2.0 Introduction to the fields of research 39 2.1 Language maintenance 41 2.1.1 Defining language maintenance terms and concepts 41 2.2 Attitudes to language maintenance – an overview 43 2.2.1 Attitudes affecting language shift and loss over generations 44 2.3 Common factors of language maintenance and ethnic identity 48 2.3.1 Community cohesiveness 50 2.3.2 Social context affecting community cohesion 50 4 2.3.3 Exposure to home culture and home country 51 2.3.4 Peer group influencing language maintenance 52 2.3.5 Influence of peer group and ethnic identity 56 2.3.6 Influence of family on language maintenance 58 2.3.7 Influence of family and ethnic identity 60 2.3.8 Economic and social status 62 2.4 Review of prior Nepalese immigrant studies in the US 63 2.5 Ethnic identity affiliation model 65 2.6.0 Types of language maintenance and ethnic identity practices 66 2.6.1 Social language practices 67 2.6.2 Social language, identity construction and age of immigrants 68 2.6.3 Social language and the connection to learning for children 70 2.7 Literacy practices 71 2.7.1 An historical overview of literacy 72 2.7.2 Autonomous viewpoint to social literacy 73 2.7.3 Defining social literacy practices and events 75 2.8 Peripheral ritualised practices 77 2.8.1 Rationale for peripheral ritualised practices 77 2.8.2 Peripheral ritualised practices – defining them 78 2.9 Macro, micro and internal factor – an overview 86 2.9.1 Macro level – policies affecting language maintenance and identity 89 2.9.2 Micro level - community as it affects language maintenance and identity 89 2.9.3 Individual level - socio-psychology affecting internal individual attitudes 90 Chapter Three – Theoretical frameworks and models 5 3.0 Theoretical framework 92 3.0.1 Three-tiered approach 93 3.1 Macro factors 94 3.1.1 Habitus 94 3.1.2 Habitus influencing ethnic identity 95 3.1.3 Vertical mobility 96 3.1.4 Structural inequality affecting the Gorkhas 97 3.2 Micro factors 103 3.2.1 Social, cultural and economic capital 103 3.2.2 Social network theory and immigrant/migrants 107 3.3 Internal/individual level socio-psychological components 109 3.4 Acculturation overview 111 3.4.1 Defining acculturation 111 3.4.2 Components in the acculturation process 112 3.5 Acculturation framework 113 3.5.1 Justification for modifications to the acculturation model 115 3.6 Acculturation – immigrant identity construction 116 3.7 Acculturation - factors affecting child identity construction 117 3.7.1 Age and identity construction 119 3.7.2 Children and identity- developmental differences 120 3.7.3 Pre-adolescence and identity – developmental differences 121 3.7.4 Adolescence and identity – developmental differences 122 3.8 Defining the acculturation continuum and terminology 122 3.8.1 Non-acculturation 124 6 3.8.2 Partial acculturation 125 3.8.3 Bi-acculturation 126 3.8.4 Third culture kid 128 3.8.5 Acculturation 129 Chapter Four - Methodology 4.0 Justification of case study approach based on research literature 130 4.0.1 Basis for the research design 130 4.1 Epistemological and ontological position of the researcher 133 4.1.2 Researchers ethnographic position 138 4.2 Methodology and methods 139 4.2.1 Rationale for methods based on research literature 139 4.3 Methodological approach 142 4.3.1 Derived ethnographic approach 142 4.3.2 Comparative case studies 144 4.3.3 Ethnographic case study approach 146 4.3.4 Constructivist paradigm approach 146 4.3.5 Observation dependability – addressing criticism 147 4.3.6 Integrating comparative constructivist approach in ethnographic case study 149 4.4 Research methods overview 150 4.4.1 The process of obtaining consent 150 4.4.2 Participants - family selection 154 4.5 Data collection 155 4.5.1 Data collection tools 155 4.5.2 Peripheral ritualised practices chart 157 7 4.6 Data collection – observation sessions 162 4.6.1 Evidence to support fieldwork structure 162 4.6.2 Outlining the observational process 162 4.6.3 Rationale for techniques used in observation session 167 4.6.4 Observation session - contexts 168 4.6.5 Observation session – schedule 169 4.6.6 Retired Gorkha family sessions 172 4.6.7 Professional Nepalese family sessions 172 4.6.8 Gorkha family sessions 173 4.6.9 Data collection – interviews using historical meta-narratives 174 4.7 Data analysis 175 4.7.1 Data analysis techniques 176 4.8 Research difficulties and ethical concerns 180 4.8.1 Assessing attitudes over various age 180 4.8.2 Ethical considerations 181 Chapter Five – Comparative analysis of practices and acculturation placement 5.0 Comparative analysis of retired Gorkha family, Gorkha family and professional Nepalese family participants 184 5.1 Retired Gorkha family placement on acculturation continuum 185 5.1.2 Retired Gorkha family prior exposure to social language practices 187 5.2 Retired Gorkha family comparative social language maintenance practices 189 5.2.1 Retired Gorkha family cultural interactive language practices type 1 191 5.2.2 Retired Gorkha family interactive social language practices type 2 193 5.2.3 Retired Gorkha family interactive social language practices type 3 194 8 5.2.4 Retired Gorkha family multimodal social language practice type 4 196 5.3 Retired Gorkha family social literacy practices 198 5.3.1 Retired Gorkha family traditional text-based social literacy practices type 1 200 5.3.2 Retired Gorkha family multimodal social literacy practices type 2 201 5.3.3 Retired Gorkha family socio-cultural ethnic social literacy practices type 3 201 5.3.4 Retired Gorkha family socio-cultural ethnic social literacy practices type 4 203 5.3.5 Retired Gorkha family prior exposure to social literacy practices 203 5.4 Gorkha family placement on acculturation continuum 205 5.4.1 Gorkha family prior exposure to language and ethnic practices 206 5.5 Gorkha family comparative language maintenance practices 209 5.5.1 Gorkha family cultural interactive practices type 1 210 5.5.2 Gorkha family social interactive language practices type 2 212 5.5.3 Gorkha family social interactive language practices type 3 214 5.5.4 Gorkha family multimodal social language practice type 4 216 5.6 Gorkha family social literacy practices 217 5.6.1 Gorkha family traditional text-based social literacy practices type 1 217 5.6.2 Gorkha family multimodal social literacy practices type 2 218 5.6.3 Gorkha family socio-cultural ethnic social literacy practices type 3 219 5.6.4 Gorkha family socio-cultural