University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 1-1-2003 Women of action : the new politics of black women in New York City, 1944-1972. Julie A. Gallagher University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1 Recommended Citation Gallagher, Julie A., "Women of action : the new politics of black women in New York City, 1944-1972." (2003). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 1299. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/1299 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WOMEN OF ACTION, IN ACTION: THE NEW POLITICS OF BLACK WOMEN IN NEW YORK CITY, 1944-1972 A Dissertation Presented by JULIE A GALLAGHER Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial flilfiilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY September 2003 Department of History © Copyright by Julie A. Gallagher 2003 All Rights Reserved WOMEN OF ACTION, IN ACTION: THE NEW POLITICS OF BLACK WOMEN IN NEW YORK CITY. 1944-1972 A Dissertation Presented by JULIE A. GALLAGHER Approved as to style and content by: Kathy Peiss, Qiair Manisha Sinha, Member ^ David Glassberg. Chair Department of History DEDICATION To Mary Beth, Jessica, Peter, Katie and Cynthia Your love and your passion for life, for learning and for adventure are my sources of inspiration and balance. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is a pleasure to acknowledge those who have contributed to this dissertation and have made the process of research and writing not only a rich learning experience, but a truly enjoyable one as well 1 had the good fortune to work with a number of great professors at the University of Massachusetts Kathy Peiss has been a remarkable advisor and I am gratefijl to have had a chance to work with her. I have benefited from her guidance and grown as a scholar in more ways than I can count. Her dedication and the encouragement she gave me throughout the years, but especially in the last few months of writing, were incredible The courses 1 took and the discussions 1 had with Kevin Boyle were critical for helping me conceptualize this project and for thinking about politics and liberalism more broadly. He has a gift for teaching and for asking insightful questions. Carl Nightingale has a distinctive passion about thinking and learning that always reminds me that the work of historians is far more than an intellectual exercise The breadth of his interests and his ability to see connections is truly a delight between areas of study are examples 1 hope to follow. Manisha Sinha courses a number of years ago 1 to work w ith and I am glad that 1 took one of her learn more from immediately realized she is a model scholar and someone 1 wanted to have taken an There are a number of people in the History Department who shared ideas and suggestions along interest in my work, have asked good questions, and particular Joyce Berkman, Joye Bowman, David the way. I would like to thank in benefited from the History Glassberg, Brian Ogilvie and Mary Wilson I have trips and my participation Department's generosity which has facilitated timely research at conferences 1 would also like to acknowledge the University of Massachusetts Graduate School for a University Fellowship. This project came to life in the Manuscript and Archives Division of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. I would especially like to acknowledge the archivists there, at the Schlesinger Library, at Rutgers University Special Collections, and at the Brooklyn Public Library 1 would also like to thank the numerous individuals who kindly gave their time and shared their memories of New York City's political life with me 1 would like to acknowledge Joan Maynard at the Society for the Preservation of Weeksville and Bedford-Stuyvesant History, Andy Cooper, Jocelyn Cooper and Dr. Jeanne Noble for their notable contributions to my project Also, I would like to thank Martha Biondi During a couple of chance meetings at the Schomburg, she generously shared ideas and gave me valuable suggestions. As 1 turn now to thank friends and family I am reminded about how absolutely fortunate 1 am My oldest and dearest friends have been a constant source of encouragement and love. I thank in particular Virginia Oran-Sabia, Christine Corriston and Elizabeth Hamilton. They each have a tremendous commitment to social justice and the wonderful 1 have grown as a person because of their friendships They also have ability to help me fmd the joy in life and to make me laugh In addition, I have had a great group of friends and colleagues at the University of Massachusetts that 1 would Lisa like to acknowledge including: Magda Ahmed, Ojae Beale, Jane Berger, Deyo, Stephanie Evans, Robin Fordham, Richard Gassan, Kristin Harper, Frances Hitchens, Mohamed Ibrahim, Karen and Brian Lennon, Leo Maley, Marian Mollin, Erica Piedade, Sherry Russell, Julia and Lonce Sandy-Bailey, and Beth Terhune. vi Finally, I would like to thank my family Words are truly lacking to express my deep gratitude for everything that they have given me My mother was always my biggest cheerleader She encouraged me to seize every opportunity and take chances, to study hard, live and to fully. All I have done has been profoundly influenced by her love and her passion for life My father in his has own way also been an inspiration and I am grateful for that. sisters My and brother, to whom 1 dedicate this dissertation, have been steadfast in their love and support They are an extraordinary group of people and 1 am thankful to have benefited from all that they do and who they are 1 would also like to recognize and thank my grandmother At ninety-five years old, she is remarkable for her continued desire to learn from the world around her, and 1 can only hope to follow her path 1 am glad that 1 can share this work with her. My closing thoughts are for Michael Simsik, my husband and partner in this journey He is generous in all he does, but particularly with his love and encouragement for me It was a joy to go through these past eight years with him. ABSTRACT WOMEN OF ACTION, IN ACTION THE NEW POLITICS OF BLACK WOMEN IN NEW YORK, 1944-1972 SEPTEMBER 2003 JULIE A GALLAGHER, B A , FORDHAM UNIVERSITY M A , UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MA, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Ph D , UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: Professor Kathy Peiss This dissertation documents a generation of black women who came to poHtics during the 1940s in New York City. Ada B Jackson, Pauli Murray, Anna Arnold Hedgeman, Bessie Buchanan, Jeanne Noble and Shirley Chisholni among others, worked, studied and lived in Harlem and Brooklyn They seized the political opportunities generated by World War II and its aftermath and pursued new ways to redress the entrenched systems of oppression that denied them RjU rights of citizenship and human dignity. These included not only grassroots activism, but also etTorts to gain insider status in the administrative state; the use of the United Nations; and an unprecedented number of campaigns for elected office. Theirs was a new politics and they waged their struggles not just for themselves, but also for their communities and for the broader ideals of equality. the halls of When World War II began, grassroots activists operated outside the state and formal political power. Yet they understood the necessity of engaging Vlll frequently endeavored to wrest power it: from the power that made life more bearable, that made the streets safer, that kept the roofs over their heads These activists and others m women's clubs and civic organizations won favor in their communities and they increasingly pursued formal political positions. As the war drew to a close, a growing number of black women ran for elected office and sought political appointments. However, to attain political posts, they had to overcome the entrenched traditions of Tammany HalPs machine and the gendered and racialized nature of New York City politics. Most were unsuccessful, but by 1954, a few succeed By the 1960s, black women had made their way into national politics. They were appointed to presidential commissions, the administration and won congressional office. Dorothy Height, Pauli Murray, Jeanne Noble, and Congresswoman and presidential candidate Shirley Chisholm represent the advancements black women made into the state structure. This study illustrates the kinds of political changes women helped bring about, it underscores the boundaries of what was possible vis-a-vis the state, and it traces how race, gender and the structure of the state itself shape outcomes. IX TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWI.HDGMENTS v ABSTRACT ^iji CHAPTER 1, INTRODUCTION 1 2. THE POLITICS OF LOCAL ACTIVISM 14 3 PUSHING THROUGH THE DOOR 58 4 VISIONS OF EQUALITY AND JUSTICE BEYOND THE BORDERS 112 5 SHIRLEY CHISHOLM AND THE ANATOMY OF A POLITICAL INSURGENCY 147 0 AFRICAN AMF:RICAN WOMEN, CIVIL RIGHTS AND FEMINISM IN THE l%Os 190 7. CONCLUSION 240 BIBLIOGRAPHY 247 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In July 1972, the Democratic party gathered in Miami, Florida to nominate its candidate to run against President Richard Nixon. Shirley Chisholm, the black congresswoman from New York City, was among the field of contenders Chisholm recounted her experiences at the convention in her autobiography. The ( uH)d l i^hl, which documented her historic run for the United States presidency.