Clemson University TigerPrints All Theses Theses 5-2016 Faces of Feminism in Early Twentieth Century Egypt Sandra N. Mokalled Clemson University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses Recommended Citation Mokalled, Sandra N., "Faces of Feminism in Early Twentieth Century Egypt" (2016). All Theses. 2373. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_theses/2373 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses at TigerPrints. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Theses by an authorized administrator of TigerPrints. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FACES OF FEMINISM IN EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY EGYPT A Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of Clemson University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts History by Sandra N. Mokalled May 2016 Accepted by: Dr. Amit Bein, Committee Chair Dr. James Burns Dr. Mashal Saif ABSTRACT In the first half of the twentieth century, during Egypt’s “liberal age,” middle- and upper- class Egyptian women carved a place for themselves in the public sphere. For the first time, women publically demanded social and political rights that had been withheld in Egypt’s traditionally patriarchal society. Female figures emerged as leaders of the Egyptian women’s movement, and the media followed the actions of these leaders and attempted to glimpse parts of their private affairs. As pioneering feminists, they were the first generation of women to be publically scrutinized by the media. Although the feminist movement during this period was typically associated with a few upper-class women, feminist activism had a variety of manifestations, or “faces.” This thesis explores the lives of three of these faces of feminism: Huda Shaarawi, Doria Shafik, and Umm Kulthum. By using their personal memoirs and writings, newspaper articles, and a number of secondary sources, it attempts to reconstruct their individual lives and to discern the ways in which each woman handled constant public attention, particularly the degree to which they allowed the media access into their private lives. Although they came from different socioeconomic backgrounds and had varying feminist visions and strategies, regular public scrutiny impacted the line between their public endeavors and private affairs. The separation between public and private varied for each feminist: while Shaarawi and Shafik maintained a fluid boundary between public and private, allowing for the exposure of certain aspects of their private lives, Umm Kulthum attempted to harden the line between her public career and private life. Ultimately, each woman’s life presents a prism through which to discern the opportunities open for women during ii Egypt’s liberal age, as well as the challenges they faced. Shaarawi, Shafik, and Umm Kulthum represent different experiences within the women’s movement, and all three women contributed to the transformation of women’s roles in Egyptian society. iii DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Steve and Rim, who have supported me not only through my graduate studies, but through my entire life. My parents provided the foundation, in every sense of the term, to my education and livelihood. Also, my sister Stefani has been instrumental during every step of the process, sitting with me for countless hours while we completed our graduate work and contemplated the future, sharing many laughs along the way. Finally, this work is for my vivacious family in Lebanon and throughout the Middle East. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to give my sincerest thanks to my advisor, Dr. Amit Bein, for all the guidance and support he provided me through this project. Through countless meetings, emails, and drafts, Dr. Bein pushed me to do my absolute best. I have had the privilege to work with Dr. Bein through both my graduate and undergraduate studies, and he has helped me grow immeasurably as a researcher and writer. There are not enough words to fully capture my gratitude to my advisor, but I am incredibly grateful for the opportunity to work with Dr. Bein. Next, I want to thank my committee members. Dr. James Burns not only served on my committee, but I was also lucky enough to be able to serve as his Teaching Assistant for two semesters. His energetic teaching style created a constantly positive environment, and I looked forward to attending each and every lecture. Dr. Mashal Saif provided a wonderful and necessary insight into the field of feminism. She pushed me to think outside of my comfort zone in order to grapple with complex notions in the Middle Eastern feminist experience, and ultimately helped me to write a balanced work. Finally, I want to thank my graduate coordinator, Dr. Paul Anderson. From our first day as graduate students until the final submission of our theses, Dr. Anderson is there to support us through every step. His office door is always open, and his dedication to students and the graduate program is truly inspiring. I am greatly indebted to the support of all those who have helped me through my two years in the graduate program. Clemson’s Department of History has provided a wonderful academic, intellectual, and social experience that I will always treasure. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................... v INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER I. HUDA SHAARAWI: THE GODMOTHER OF EGYPTIAN FEMINISM ................................................................ 24 The Making of a Feminist Leader ......................................................... 26 Emerging into the Public Sphere, 1919-1922 ........................................ 34 Egyptian Nationalism and Radical Liberal Feminism ........................... 41 Expanding Horizons: Arab Nationalism and the Defense of Palestine . 52 II. “THOSE WHO DEMAND MUCH MUST GIVE MUCH”: THE DYNAMIC LIFE OF DORIA SHAFIK ....................................... 64 Early Life and Feelings of Alienation ................................................... 67 The Sorbonne: Education and Feminist Ideology ................................. 73 Searching for Public Space .................................................................... 83 Engaging in Popular Feminist Activity ................................................. 87 Direct Confrontation: the Height of her Career ..................................... 97 The Beginning of the End .................................................................... 103 III. Umm Kulthum: Giving Voice to Egypt .................................................... 109 The “Little Girl Who Sings”: Early Life in the Countryside ............... 111 Rise to Fame: Transforming into a Star .............................................. 118 The Cultural Symbol of Egypt ............................................................ 129 CONCLUSION………. .............................................................................................. 137 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 150 vi INTRODUCTION The first half of the twentieth century was a critical period of social change in Egypt, particularly the years between 1919 and 1952, known as the “liberal age.” More than before, middle- and upper- class women were visible in the public sphere, participating in activities such as journalism, education, philanthropy, and the fight for their political rights. Women claimed public space in Egypt, and individual women in Cairo rose to prominence as leaders of the movement for social change, with the ultimate goal of improving the lives of women. Leading female figures increasingly acquired national attention, which inevitably impacted their daily lives, both public and private. As they navigated through professional and personal endeavors, the public followed their actions through the Egyptian and international press. Moreover, a number of women wrote memoirs that reflected upon their individual lives. Thus, there is a rich record about the public personas of leading women, creating an opportunity for historians to study the daily lives of pioneering feminists. By examining their public activities and the revealed—or hidden—private affairs of these women, it is possible to not only identify their feminist consciousness, but also discern the way in which each woman took command of increasing public exposure. This thesis explores the lives of three Egyptian feminists in the early twentieth century: Huda Shaarawi (1879-1947), the president and face of the first Egyptian feminist organization, the Egyptian Feminist Union, Doria Shafik (1908-1975), the middle-class feminist activist whose rebellious nature made headlines across Egypt, and Umm Kulthum (1904-1975), a singer from the Egyptian countryside who ascended to stardom in Egypt and the Arab world. 1 The development of social transformation is influenced by periods of political and economic change.