Argument and Persuasion Two Parties in an Argument • The speaker/rhetor: the party that is attempting to persuade • The audience: the party that is the target of persuasion Speaker’s Purpose Here are some questions to consider when thinking about the speaker’s purpose: • What is the speaker or writer’s intention? • What does he or she want the audience to do? There are many purposes of an argument. A speaker may just want an audience simply to consider a different perspective or a new angle on an idea. Immediate and Larger Purpose In some cases, there is more than one purpose: • An immediate, specific purpose • Larger purpose Purpose Example For example: • Malala Yousafzai wrote her blog primarily to call attention to what she believed was an unfair situation - limitations on the educational opportunities available to women in her culture. • But, she also intended to criticize the regime that created such oppression. Audience While there are often multiple audiences for any argument, usually the speaker has a primary audience in mind for his or her claim. A speaker may tailor an argument depending on: • Expectations • Prejudices • Anticipated objections • Interests of that audience Persuasion Example As Galileo was proposing his theories about our solar system, his greatest opponent was the Roman Catholic Church. • So, in making his argument, he tried to be careful not to offend religious leaders. Persuasion Example ● In the early 17th century, Galileo Galilei presented evidence supporting Nicolaus Copernicus’s theory ○ The earth revolved around the sun. ● This went against the claims of most scientists and religious leaders at the time who thought that earth was the center of the universe. ● Galileo was arrested and imprisoned for arguing his position, eventually the ban on his work was lifted, and his ideas prevailed because of the compelling evidence he had presented. Rhetorical Appeals: Persuasion Techniques Rhetorical Appeals • Rhetorical appeals are attempts by a speaker to persuade an Ethos audience – or to put it another Speaker / Rhetor way, attempts to say things that an audience would find Message appealing. Textof Text • After more than two thousand Audience Subject years, we still refer to the Pathos Logos classical rhetorical appeals identified by Aristotle. "Of the [modes of persuasion] provided through speech there are three species: for some are in the character of the speaker, and some are in disposing the listener in some way, and some in the argument itself, by showing or seeming to show something" --Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 1356 B.C. (trans. George A. Kennedy) Three Elements to the Art of Persuasion • Ethos: The speaker/rhetor is perceived by the audience as credible (or not). • Pathos: The speaker/rhetor attempts to persuade the audience by making them feel certain emotions. • Logos: The speaker/rhetor attempts to persuade the audience by the use of arguments that they will perceive as logical. A Note About Appeals • In academic writing •Ethos and logos are given more respect than pathos • An essay that relies primarily on pathos, with little use of ethos or logos •Unlikely to be perceived by an academic audience as persuasive Appeal to Ethos • Ethos is an appeal to the credibility and authority of the speaker. • If the speaker is not seen as trustworthy or knowledgeable on the subject, then all the logic and emotion in the world is unlikely to sway an audience. Showing credibility? • The speaker/rhetor demonstrates: • demonstrate authority • demonstrate shared value • When thinking about ethos, ask yourself: • How does the speaker establish his or her good character? • What values or concerns does the speaker share with the audience? One Way to Think of Ethos • Think, for example, you needed a dog trainer for your dog that is exhibiting strange behavior. • A friend suggests you call a dog trainer he/she knows. • At first, you may not trust that your friend actually knows a qualified dog trainer. Automatic Ethos • But, your friend mentions that he knows the “Dog Whisperer,” a well-known animal behaviorist. • In some instances, a speaker’s reputation immediately establishes ethos. Automatic Ethos • When Lou Gehrig gave his speech, he did not introduce himself as “Lou Gehrig, baseball legend.” This title automatically follows Gehrig. He brings ethos of a legendary athlete to his speech. • The audience was well aware of his accomplishments. • Yet, Gehrig’s purpose was not to reinforce his legendary status; it was to reinforce his humanity. Automatic vs. Building Ethos • Some speakers have a certain amount of ethos because of who they are: • well-respected dog trainer, • legendary sports hero, or • a well-respected scientist who presents an argument on the effects of caffeine. • But, what if that scientist wanted to talk to the school board about increasing security at her son’s school? Does being a well-respected chemist help? Automatic vs. Building Ethos • It might help a bit, but it’s not really relevant to the issue at hand. • At that point the scientist would have to establish her ethos as a parent who shared the values and concerns of other parents of other parents in the room. • This is referred to as “building ethos.” West Side Story (1961) Observers • Watch the following clip from West Side Story • How is Maria and the other seamstresses characterized? Building Ethos: An Example The following is the opening from: ● “The Myth of the Latin Woman: I Just Met a Girl Named Maria” by Judith Ortiz Cofer. Pay attention to how she builds the authority to write on this topic. Building Ethos: An Example Answers • As Cofer develops her argument about common stereotypes of Latin women, she establishes her authority to speak on the subject of racial prejudice through: • her background (Puerto Rican, Latina) • her education (graduate student at Oxford University) • her experience (firsthand encounter with ethnic bias) • Thus, she establishes ethos and gains the readers’ trust..