An Investigation into the Representations of Sexuality in Sex Education Manuals for British Teenagers, 1950-2014 Lee John Oakley For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English Language & Applied Linguistics College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham June 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Contents Acknowledgements Abstract (1) Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1 (1.1) Background ………………………………………………………………………………………………………1 (1.2) Motivations for the study ………………………………………………………………………………..2 (1.3) Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………5 (1.4) Queer Theory ………………………………………………………………………………………………….6 (1.5) Summary of thesis structure …………………………………………………………………………..9 (1.5.1) The SexEd Corpus ……………………………………………………………………………10 (1.5.2) Corpus-Assisted Discourse Analysis Section …………………………………….10 (1.5.3) Constraint Analysis Section ……………………………………………………………..10 (1.5.4) Attribution Analysis Section …………………………………………………………….10 (1.5.5) Multimodal Discourse Analysis Section ……………………………………………11 (1.5.6) Discussion and Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….11 (2) The SexEd Corpus …………………………………………………………………………………………………………12 (2.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..12 (2.2) A Brief Potted History of Sexuality in the UK …………………………………………………13 (2.2.1) Aristotle’s Compleat Master-Piece (1684) ………………………………………13 (2.2.2) The Criminal Law Amendment Act (1885) …………………………….…….….14 (2.2.3) The Wolfenden Report (1957) ………………………………………………………..15 (2.2.4) The Obscene Publications Act (1959) ……………………………………………..16 (2.2.5) The Sexual Offences Act (1967) ……………………………………………………….17 (2.2.6) The HIV/AIDS crisis in the UK …………………………………………………………..17 (2.2.7) Clause 28 of the Local Government Act (1988) ………………………………..18 (2.2.8) The Sexual Offences Act (2003) ……………………………………………………….19 (2.3) Composition of the SexEd Corpus …………………………………………………………………..20 (2.3.1) Criteria for Data Collection ………………………………………………………………20 (2.4) The SexEd Corpus …………………………………………………………………………………………..25 (2.4.1) Authors and Publishers ……………………………………………………………………30 (2.4.2) Preliminary Corpus Findings …………………………………………………………….32 (2.5) Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….37 (3) Analysis 1: Corpus-Assisted Discourse Analysis …………………………………………………………….38 (3.1) Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….38 (3.2) Modern Diachronic Corpus-Assisted Discourse Studies (MD-CADS) ………………43 (3.3) Methodology …………………………………………………………………………………………………45 (3.4) Cluster 1: Homosexual, Gay, and Lesbian ………………………………………………………48 (3.4.1) Being Victims of Discrimination or Abuse ……………………………………….50 (3.4.2) Performing Sexual Activities …………………………………………………………..56 (3.4.3) Seeking Partners …………………………………………………………………………….58 (3.4.4) Proving Useful Citizens …………………………………………………………………..60 (3.4.5) Coming Out ……………………………………………………………………………………63 (3.4.6) Having Psychological Inhibitions or Deficiencies …………………………….65 (3.4.7) Performing Criminal Activities ……………………………………………………….66 (3.4.8) Adhering to Norms (or not) ……………………………………………………………68 (3.4.9) Being Parents ………………………………………………………………………………..70 (3.5) Summary of Cluster 1: Homosexual, Gay and Lesbian ………………………………….71 (3.6) Cluster 2: Heterosexual and Straight ……………………………………………………………76 (3.6.1) Being Compared with Gay People ………………………………………………….77 (3.6.2) Having Same-Sex Desires or Experiences ……………………………………….80 (3.6.3) Expressing Fear or Hostility Towards Gay People …………………………..81 (3.6.4) Having Relationship Issues …………………………………………………………….85 (3.7) Summary of Cluster 2 – Heterosexual and Straight ………………………………………86 (3.8) Section Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………..89 (4) Analysis 2: Constraint …………………………………………………………………………………………………..90 (4.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………..90 (4.2) Definitions of Constraint ………………………………………………………………………………..91 (4.3) Methodology …………………………………………………………………………………………………94 (4.4) Personal Constraints ……………………………………………………………………………………..97 (4.4.1) Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………97 (4.4.2) Genetic Constraints ………………………………………………………………………..98 (4.4.3) Psychosexual Development Constraints ………………………………………..100 (4.4.4) Medical and Psychological Constraints ………………………………………….104 (4.4.5) Sexual Constraints …………………………………………………………………………106 (4.5) Institutional Constraints ……………………………………………………………………………….109 (4.5.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..109 (4.5.2) Legal Constraints ……………………………………………………………………………111 (4.5.3) Employment Constraints ……………………………………………………………….114 (4.5.4) Segregation of the Sexes as Constraint ………………………………………….116 (4.6) Social Constraints …………………………………………………………………………………………119 (4.6.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..119 (4.6.2) Attitudes and Behavioural Constraints …………………………………………..119 (4.6.3) Adherence to Social Norms as Constraint ……………………………………..124 (4.7) Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………128 (4.7.1) Summary of Findings …………………………………………………………………….130 (4.7.1.1) Personal Constraints ……………………………………………………….132 (4.7.1.2) Institutional Constraints ………………………………………………….133 (4.7.1.3) Social Constraints …………………………………………………………..135 (4.8) Section Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………..136 (5) Analysis 3: Attributions ……………………………………………………………………………………………..138 (5.1) Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………….138 (5.2) Representing Words and Thoughts …………………………………………………………….138 (5.2.1) Averral …………………………………………………………………………………………138 (5.2.2) Attribution ……………………………………………………………………………………138 (5.2.3) Embedded Attribution ………………………………………………………………….140 (5.3) Forms of Attribution …………………………………………………………………………………….142 (5.3.1) Reporting Verbs …………………………………………………………………………….142 (5.3.1.1) Direct Quotation …………………………………………………………….143 (5.3.1.2) Indirect Quotation ………………………………………………………….143 (5.3.2) Scare Quotes …………………………………………………………………………………143 (5.3.3) Stance Adverbs ……………………………………………………………………………..144 (5.3.4) Negation ……………………………………………………………………………………….145 (5.3.5) Concessions ………………………………………………………………………..…………146 (5.4) The Significance of Attribution Analysis ……………………………………………………….147 (5.5) Section Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………152 (5.6) Martin and White’s (2005) APPRAISAL framework ………………………………………….152 (5.6.1) Endorse …………………………………………………………………………………………153 (5.6.2) Acknowledge ………………………………………………………………………………..154 (5.6.3) Distance ………………………………………………………………………………………..154 (5.6.4) Contest ………………………………………………………………………………………….154 (5.7) Methodology and Findings …………………………………………………………………………..155 (5.7.1) Society Sources ……………………………………………………………………………..160 (5.7.2) Summary of Society Sources ………………………………………………………….168 (5.7.3) Authority Sources ………………………………………………………………………….169 (5.7.4) Summary of Authority Sources ………………………………………………………179 (5.7.5) LGBT Sources …………………………………………………………………………………180 (5.7.6) Summary of LGBT Sources …………………………………………………………….192 (5.7.7) Historical Sources ………………………………………………………………………….192 (5.7.8) Summary of Historical Sources ……………………………………………………..197 (5.7.9) Reader Sources …………………………………………………………………………….198 (5.7.10) Summary of Reader Sources ………………………………………………………201 (5.8) Section Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………202 (6) Analysis 4: Multimodal Discourse Analysis ………………………………………………………………….205 (6.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………205 (6.2) Systemic Functional Linguistics …………………………………………………………………….206 (6.3) Multimodal Analysis on Books for Young People ………………………………………….206 (6.4) Visual Sources ……………………………………………………………………………………………..208 (6.4.1) Types of Image in the SexEd Corpus ……………………………………………..208 (6.5) Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………214 (6.5.1) Section Research Questions …………………………………………………………..214 (6.6) Multimodal Representations of Sexuality ……………………………………………………214 (6.6.1) Photographic Images …………………………………………………………………….217 (6.6.2) Illustrator’s Sketches …………………………………………………………………….220 (6.6.3) Digital Cartoon Images ………………………………………………………………….223 (6.7) Pattern 1: Visual Omission of Same-Sex Intimacy …………………………………………226 (6.7.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..226 (6.7.2) Findings …………………………………………………………………………………………227 (6.7.3) Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………….240 (6.8) Pattern 2: Visual Representations of Simplistic Sexual Binaries ……………………242 (6.8.1) Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….242 (6.8.2) Findings …………………………………………………………………………………………243 (6.8.3) Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………….246 (6.9) Pattern 3: The ‘Heterosexual Gaze’ ………………………………………………………………247 (6.9.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..247 (6.9.2) Findings …………………………………………………………………………………………248 (6.9.3) Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………….260 (6.10) Pattern 4: Structurally Marked Layout of Same-Sex Sexuality Sections ………261 (6.10.1) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………261 (6.10.2) Findings ……………………………………………………………………………………….262 (6.10.3) Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………..264 (6.11) Section Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………….266 (7) Discussion and Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………….267