Profitability and Production of 19th Century Composite Ships: The Case Study of the Austrian Vessel, The Slobodna By Eric Rodriguez Bachelor of Philosophy, University of Pittsburgh, 2012 Submitted to the faculty of University of Pittsburgh In partial fulfillment of The requirements for the degree of BPhil University of Pittsburgh 2012 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS & SCIENCES This thesis was presented by Eric A. Rodriguez It was defended on April 13, 2012 And approved by Martha Chaiklin, PhD, University of Pittsburgh, Department of History Kathleen Allen, PhD, University of Pittsburgh Department of Anthropology Fraser Sturt, PhD, University of Southampton, Faculty of Humanities Thesis Advisor, Bryan Hanks, PhD, University of Pittsburgh, Department of Anthropology ii Copyright by Eric A. Rodriguez 2012 iii PROFITABILITY AND PRODUCTIONOF 19TH CENTURY COMPOSITE SHIPS:THE CASE STUDY OF THE AUSTRIAN VESSEL, THE SLOBODNA Eric Rodriguez, BPhil University of Pittsburgh, 2012 The shipbuilding strategies of the late-19th century are defined by the adaptations and incorporation of new building materials that allowed for the specialization and near perfection of the sailing ship as a commerce vehicle. European shipbuilding industries began incorporating iron as a building material as its value became lower than that of timber. As the more affordable alternative, iron alleviated the pressures of decreasing timber reserves and the material’s growing value. Iron was integrated into merchant ships, creating larger stronger hulls and achieving faster freighting rates. The first iron and wood hybrids were known as composite ships, which increased the economic surplus of the industries due to low production costs and increasing efficient freighting rates. As the revenue increased, industries expanded into the specialized production of iron ship parts eliminating more of their reliance of wooden craftsmanship and its costly application. The lost cost and benefits of ironworking in sailing ships gave sailing dominion over the long-distance trade while the steamship controlled regional trade. The steamship produced only low returns on long-distance trade due to high fuel consumption and frequent repair, giving the sailing ship a specialized role for trade. With the creation of the fuel-conscious triple combustion engine in the late-1880s, the steamship became more efficient and profitable than sailing ships, which were then phased out of commercial trading. However, this trend did not happen simultaneously across Europe as the availability and level of industrial production varied. Austrian builders continued practicing traditional shipbuilding methods up to the 1880s, as it remained the most cost-efficient method of construction for long distance trade. Through an archaeological and historic study of one of these Austrian vessels, the Slobodna, it is possible to observe the different methods that European countries at the time utilized in order to maintain their approaches to capitalism. Through an interdisciplinary approach consisting of history, Marxian economics, and maritime archaeology, it is possible to identify and further examine the relationship between the motivation to achieve high profitability in shipbuilding and the incorporation of technological advancements in the industrial and economic situations that were present in 19th century Europe. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………..….……………………………….……..x 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………….…………………………………………1 1.1 19TH CENTURY EUROPEAN SAILING SHIP.….………………………………….3 1.2 MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE SLOBODNA………………..…………4 2. MARITIME ECONOMICS AND INDUSTRIALIZATION IN 19TH CENTURY EUROPE……………………………………………………………….………………....6 2.1 ECONOMIC THEORY IN 19TH CENTURY SHIP PRODUCTION………………..8 2.2 A SURVEY OF SHIPBUILDING IN THE 19TH CENTURY ……………...…….….9 2.2.1 Transitioning From Wood to Iron……………………………………..……....9 2.2.2 Composite and Iron Shipbuilding…………………………………………....12 2.2.3 The Rise of Steam…………………………………………………………....16 2.3 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………...18 3. THE INDUSTRIALIZATION AND MARITIME ECONOMY OF 19TH CENTURY GREAT BRITAIN………………………………………………………………..…….19 3.1 WORLD FRIEGHTING IN THE 19TH CENTURY….……………………………..20 3.2 HIGH PROFITABILITY IN BRITISH SHIPBUILDING………..……...…………22 3.2.1 Industrialization factors……………………………………………….……..22 3.2.2 Maritime Legislation and Government Actions……………………….….…25 3.3 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………...27 v 4. THE INDUSTRIAL AND ECONOMIC SITUATION OF 19TH CENTURY AUSTRIA-HUNGARY……………………………………………………….………..28 4.1 19TH CENTURY MEDITERRANEAN AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ……...…….28 4.1.1 Industry and Trade in the Mediterranean……………………………….…....28 4.1.2 Industry and Commerce of Austria-Hungary……………………….…….…30 4.2 AUSTRIAN EFFORTS IN MARITIME COMMERCIALISM—ROLE OF ADRIATIC PORTS………………………………………………….……..….…….32 4.3 CONCLUSION………………….…………………………………………………...33 5. HISTORY OF THE AUSTRIAN COMPOSITE SHIP, THE SLOBODNA………..35 5.1 CONSTRUCTION AND EARLY YEARS…………………………………………35 5.2 WRECKAGE AND SALVAGE………………………….…………….……….…...37 5.3 CONCLUSION……………………..………………………………………………..38 6. ARCHAEOLOGICAL DOCUMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE SLOBODNA….………………………………………………………………………....39 6.1 SHIPWRECK ARCHAEOLOGY……………………………………………….......40 6.1.1 Overview…..…………….……………………………………………….......40 6.1.2 Maritime vs. Nautical Archaeology……………………………………....….41 6.1.3 Wrecking Process……………………………………………………….....…42 6.1.4 Shipwreck Archaeology and theSlobodna.......................................................43 6.2 PAST RESEARCH EFFORTS…………………………………………………..…..44 6.2.1 Discovery and Confirmation: Indiana University (1998-2005)………….......44 6.2.2 Further Documentation: PAST Foundation (2005-Present)……………....…46 6.3 METHODOLOGY AND 2011 GOALS………………..……………......………….47 vi 6.3.1 Site Description…………………………………………………...……..…..47 6.3.2 2011 Efforts to Locate the Slobodna’s Stern.……………………………….49 6.3.3 2011 Methodology and Logistics...………….………………..…….……….50 6.3.4 Feature Locations…….………………………………………………….…..50 6.4 2011 FEATURE DOCUMENTATION………………………………………….….52 6.4.1 Framing Systems……………………………………………………….……52 6.4.2 Interior Iron Structure………………………………………………….…….53 6.4.3 Iron Knees………………………………………………….…………….…..57 6.4.4 Deck Structure (Supporting Knees)…………………….……………………58 6.4.5 Rigging and Spar Components………………………………………………60 6.5 VERIFICATION OF THE PRIMARY DOCUMENTS…….………………………62 6.6 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………...63 7. CONCLUSION: THE RELAVANCE OF THE SLOBODNA……………….……..66 7.1 THEMATIC ELEMENTS PRESENT IN THE SLOBODNA……..…..………..….66 7.2 FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS……………….………………………………..68 8. APPENDIX A:PRIMARY DOCUMENTS…………………………………………..70 9. APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY OF IRON SHIP PARTS….…………………………..83 10. APPENDIX C: TABLE OF FEATURES DOCUMENTED DURING THE 2011 FIELD SEASON……………………………………………………………….……….87 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY..……………………………………….……………………………89 vii LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 A Composite Sailing Ship, Aclestis, at the End of the 19th century…………………...…….12 2.2 Riveted Iron Ship……………………..……………………………………………….…..…13 4.1 Popular Trade Routes in Europe During the Age of Sail……………………………….……29 4.2 Map of Austria-Hungary in the Late 18th Century……………………………….…………..31 4.3 Map Displaying the Geographic Locations of Yachting Ports (Marinas) on the Adriatic Coast including the Major Ports of Rijeka and Losinj, Homeport of the Slobodna…………………....33 5.1 Map with Red Star indicating the Slobodna’s Homeport Herceg-Novi……………..………35 5.2 Map of Molasses Reef in Relation to the Coast and Protected Sites of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuaries…………………………………………………………………………….…37 6.1 An outline of Muckelroy’s Wrecking Process as described by Cory Retherford…………....42 6.2 Location of the Slobodna’s Mast Wreck and Winch Hole Sites in Relation to the Rodriguez and Tavernier Keys used to correlate the sites to the Salvage Reports…………..….………..…45 6.3 The Three Loci of the Slobodna indicated by the Red Stars……………..……………..…..48 6.4 Map of Buoy 13, the Slobodna Amidship Site……………….…………………..………….48 6.5 Locations of Interest Surrounding Molasses Reef including the Potential Sites of Spanish Anchor, Medium Anchor and Northeast Anchor…………………………………………………49 6.6 Divers of the 2011 Field Season trilaterating a Rider Knee Fragment………………………50 6.7 Artifact Map of Features Documented by 2011 Green Team……..…………………....……51 6.8 Artifact Map of Features Documented by 2011 Blue Team…………………………...…….51 viii 6.9 Artifact Map of Features Documented by 2011 Red Team………………………..……..….51 6.10 Bronze Fasteners located at Ravine 2 of the Bronze Wreck site……………………..……..52 6.11 I-beam documented during the 2011 field season located in Ravine 2….……..….……….53 6.12 A 19th century composite sailing ship hull structure highlighting the use of I-beams and T- beams………………………………………………………………………………….…………54 6.13 Dagger knees located in Ravine 2 matching the curvature of the vessel…………….……..57 6.14 Deadeye taken from the Slobodna at the Winch Hole site…………………..……………...61 6.15 Patent Windlass by Emerson Walker & Co……..………………………………………….62 ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS On July 29, 2011 I took my first dive off the Florida Peninsula as part of a project that has focused on the documentation of the Austrian vessel, the Slobodna. It was from this experience and the data collected from it that this thesis was born. I would like to thank the PAST foundation for allowing me to participate in the 2011 field school opportunity and for providing permission to access and use their acquired data and resources. Special thanks goes to my supervisor Dr Sheli O. Smith who instructed me in practical