The Effects of 2004 Tsunami and the Transformative Adaptation of Disaster Management in Malaysia By: Mohd Zakaria bin Ibrahim A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Social Science Department of Politics March 2018 Dedication This dissertation is a precious gift to my mother, who always prays for my success and my late father who understood my dream. I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Anizah who follows my ambition at the expense of her career, for her moral support and understanding. It also goes to our daughters; Nuraina, Nuralisa, Nuradelia and Nursara for their perseverance, determination and adaptation in a new environment. My dedication also extended to the Malaysian community in Sheffield especially close friends in Darnall for their endless support. It is also extended to my families and friends in Pahang, Penang, Melaka, Putrajaya, and throughout Malaysia. ‘Kejarlah cita-citamu sehingga ke hujung dunia’ -Andrea Hirata, Laskar Pelangi- Zakaria Ibrahim Sheffield, UK March 10, 2018 22 Rejab 1439 Acknowledgement I would like to express my special thanks and utmost gratitude to my first supervisor; Professor Andrew J. Taylor who is the very first person to acknowledge my potential and always encourage me to keep believing in myself in the hardest time. My gratitude also goes to my second supervisor, Dr. Hayley Stevenson, who helped me charting the course in the first year and for reading the final draft dissertation. My special thanks also go to the internal examiner, Professor J. Allister McGregor and external examiner, Dr. Adam Tyson (University of Leeds). It is also extended to the PGR Director, Professor Graham Harrison, his deputy, Dr. Alasdair Cochrane and their successor Dr. Garrett W Brown and deputy, Dr. Alistair McMillan. I also would like to express my special appreciation to Mrs. Sarah Cooke (Department Secretary and PGR Administrator) at the Department of Politics, for her amazing efficiency at work. My sincere gratitude goes to the interviewees for their valuable time and honest reflections and insights on the topic. Equally important are the selected participants of ‘Rumah Tsunami’ (tsunami resettlement houses) residents who were willing to be part of my research sample and answered questionnaires during the fieldwork. I am obliged to recognise significant contribution of my former co-workers at National Security Council, Headquarters in Putrajaya, Disaster Management Division in Cyberjaya and NSC Penang Office for their dedication and commitment to support my research in various forms, in particular during the fieldwork in Penang, Malaysia. Last but not least to the Public Service Department for the scholarship, ‘Hadiah Latihan Persekutuan’. The Effects of 2004 Tsunami and the Transformative Adaptation of the Disaster Management in Malaysia Table of Contents List of Tables ......................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ........................................................................................................ iv List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................. vii Abstract .................................................................................................................. x Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 Problem .................................................................................................................. 1 Significance ............................................................................................................ 3 Hypothesis .............................................................................................................. 4 Research Objectives and Questions ...................................................................... 4 Research Methodology ........................................................................................... 7 Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 10 Reliability and Validity of Recall Data ................................................................... 13 Ethics .................................................................................................................... 20 Outline of the Dissertation .................................................................................... 20 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 21 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Framework ................................... 23 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 23 Defining a Natural Disaster ................................................................................... 23 Risk, Vulnerability and Resilience ......................................................................... 27 Transformative Change and Adaptation ............................................................... 33 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 36 Chapter 3: Disaster Management Mechanism in Malaysia ................................... 38 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 38 National Security Council (NSC) Directive No. 20 ................................................ 39 The Tsunami......................................................................................................... 44 Short Term Government Responses .................................................................... 53 Long Term Programmes ....................................................................................... 57 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 59 Chapter 4: Reaction and Feedback of the Tsunami Affected People ................... 61 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 61 Case Study Areas in Penang State ...................................................................... 61 Perception of Bias in the Distribution of Government Assistance ......................... 88 Ethnic Relation and Tsunami ................................................................................ 92 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 100 Chapter 5: The Tsunami’s Indirect Effects on Politics ........................................ 102 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 102 Politics before the Tsunami ................................................................................ 103 Indirect Political Effects ...................................................................................... 105 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 119 i Chapter 6: Transformative Change and Adaptation ........................................... 121 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 121 Transformation after the Tsunami ....................................................................... 121 Embedding Disaster Mitigation in Development Planning .................................. 123 Development of the Tsunami Early Warning System ......................................... 125 Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) ....................................... 129 Amendments of the NSC Directive No. 20 ......................................................... 141 New Standard Operating Procedures (SOP’s) for Tsunami ............................... 142 A New Disaster Management Bill ....................................................................... 143 A New National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA) .................................. 144 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 145 Chapter 7: Conclusion ........................................................................................ 147 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 147 The Research Questions .................................................................................... 148 Impact on Government and Local Politics ........................................................ 153 Summary ............................................................................................................ 158 Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 160 Appendix 1.1: List of Interviewees ...................................................................... 174 Appendix 1.2: Interview Questions ..................................................................... 175 Appendix 1.3: Questionnaire Form ..................................................................... 179 ii List of Tables Table 1.1: Matrix of Research Objectives,