European Influences at the Genesis of the Continental Army and the United States Armed Services in the Late Eighteenth to Early Nineteenth Centuries Nathatai Manadee Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD The University of Leeds School of History September, 2017 - ii - The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2017 The University of Leeds and Nathatai Manadee - iii - Acknowledgements This research could not have been completed without assistance from many people. First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Kevin Linch, for his invaluable advice, encouragement, and kindness, as well as his supervision which opened my mind to analytical opportunity. I wish to acknowledge the School of History University of Leeds for the grant for my archival visit in Washington D.C. My thanks must go to Office of the Higher Education Commission, Thailand, for awarding me a scholarship and providing all travelling and living expenses for my PhD study. Next, I would like to thank all the primary and secondary sources which provided me with facts, ideas, and endless inspiration. I am deeply thankful for my external examiner, Professor Stephen Conway, and my internal examiner, Dr Peter Maw, for an intellectual and enjoyable viva and their valuable feedback. My gratefulness is extended to all of my friends, particularly Ms Kanokon Rattanapon, Mr Prapat Bunkwang, Mr Khajornsak Sitthi, Ms Nisanee Chaiprakorpwiriya, Ms Visara Kraiwatanapong, Mr Chaiyon Tongsukkaeng, and Mr Hafiz Salae for their precious friendship, assistance, and company in Leeds. Finally, my greatest appreciation goes to my family for their love, care, and support in every kind, which I always receive no matter how long I have been away from home. - iv - Abstract The Second Congress established the Continental Army, the first national fighting force, in the European style, to encounter Britain in the American Revolutionary War. The army was inspired by its British opponent and affected by its French counterpart and allies. All these influences were demonstrated in several attempts that Congress and the commanding officers made to create a professional army, and how the army was shaped over time. The lack of most war essentials obligated the Americans to seek any possible way to handle these struggles. Without a central government, the revolutionaries formed themselves as a team and used private networks to gain what they wanted for the army. In the first phase of the war the Americans adopted the practices of the British army. The Continental regiments were organized after the British model, the officers used British reading lists to educate themselves, and when they were faced with a shortage of men, they persuaded other ethnicities and races to enlist, like the British had done. The approaches worked, but did not completely solve the problems. The American envoys, therefore, were present in Paris to plead with the King of France for assistance, and later on the army was aided with money, supplies, fleet, and military technicians. French officers and their allies thus participated in most of the Continental units and helped to improve the army’s performance and other war aspects. They also supported the thought of establishing the first American military school. The thesis explores the influences of eighteen-century European warfare on the Continental Army, which was pushed to grow as a credible and honourable force. It analyzes how the army was based on European military tradition, and how it was sculpted by war-resource deficiencies. In doing so, it bolsters understanding of the first American army, which combined European culture with an American way of fighting. - v - Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... iii Abstract ..................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................................... vii Introduction ............................................................................................................ viii Background of the Problem ................................................................................. xiv Aims and Themes ............................................................................................... xviii Chapter 1 Making an Army ..................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 The first phase of the war, year 1775 .................................................................... 12 Washington’s army reorganization in 1776 .......................................................... 23 The change of 1777 ............................................................................................... 32 The arrangement of the army in 1778 ................................................................... 40 Infantry .............................................................................................................. 42 Artillery ............................................................................................................. 43 Cavalry .............................................................................................................. 43 Provost .............................................................................................................. 44 Engineer Department ........................................................................................ 44 The inspector general arrangements and the organization in 1781 ....................... 48 Army of 1783 ........................................................................................................ 54 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 58 Chapter 2 Relationship between Congress, States, and the Commander in Chief on the Army Characteristics .................................................................................. 60 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 60 The importance of Congress selecting a commander-in-chief .............................. 68 Military Commander and Congress delegates ...................................................... 77 Board of War and civilian influence on the Continental Army ............................ 80 Washington’s private network with civilian leaders ............................................. 87 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 94 Chapter 3 Military Literature................................................................................ 98 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 98 Military Books Shared by British and Continental Armies ................................ 104 The Military Books Used by the Continental Army ........................................... 118 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 126 Chapter 4 Non-American Recruitments ............................................................. 128 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 128 Native Americans in the American Revolution .................................................. 132 Slave Recruitment during the American Revolutionary War ............................. 145 - vi - German Soldiers in America ............................................................................... 156 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 167 Chapter 5 Foreign Officers’ Roles ....................................................................... 170 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 170 Early French support acquisitions ....................................................................... 171 Foreign officers and military leadership ............................................................. 174 Military Expertise ................................................................................................ 180 Engineering ..................................................................................................... 180 Infantry and military tactics ............................................................................ 190 The drillmaster ................................................................................................ 198 Foreign patriot and personal devotion ................................................................. 206 The politics of enlisting foreign officers ............................................................. 211 Foreign officers’ integration into the decisive battle