International Journal of Selection and Assessment Volume 17 Number 1 March 2009 Construct and Criterion-Related Validation of a Measure of Emotional Reasoning Skills: A two-study investigation Gerhard Blickle*, Tassilo S. Momm*, Jochen Kramer*, Jan Mierke*, Yongmei Liu** and Gerald R. Ferris*** *University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany. [email protected] **University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA ***Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA In a two-study investigation, the construct and criterion-related validities of the Test of Emotional Intelligence, an ability-based measure of emotional reasoning skills, were examined. In Study 1, as hypothesized, emotional reasoning skills were related to emotion recognition ability (i.e., as measured by Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy), emotional empathy, and three measures of successful social functioning (i.e., social astuteness, interpersonal influence, and apparent sincerity) assessed by peers, after controlling for personality and occupational environment characteristics. In Study 2, results from a predictive validation study demonstrated that Emotional Intelligence explained additional variance in overall job performance ratings beyond general mental ability and personality traits. Contributions and implications of this research investiga- tion, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. 1. Introduction examined either as a trait (e.g., Bar-On, 2000), or as an ability (e.g., Daus & Ashkanasy, 2005; Mayer et al., 2004; he construct of Emotional Intelligence (EI) has Mayer & Salovey, 1993; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000, T received a great deal of attention in both popular 2002; Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008). In the current books (e.g., Goleman, 1995, 1998) and academic jour- research, we focus on the ability-based model of EI. nals (e.g., Locke, 2005; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004; The ability-based approach to EI, originally proposed Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews, 2001). Whereas debates by Mayer and colleagues (Mayer & Salovey, 1993, 1997; on various issues of EI remain open, both theoretical Mayer et al., 2004), has been widely endorsed among and empirical exploration in this area continue to push scholars, resulting in considerable empirical research EI research forward and enrich our understanding of and accumulating evidence regarding the nomological the scientific properties of EI. To date, EI has been network of EI, as well as its criterion-related validity (e.g., Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerneer, & Salovey, The authors wish to express their gratitude to Marcus Bu¨hner, Neal 2006; Coˆte´ & Miners, 2006; Law, Wong, & Song, Ashkanasy, and Ste´phane Coˆte´ for their helpful comments on an 2004; Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003; Mayer, Salovey, earlier version of this paper. Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003; Rode, Mooney, Artaud-Day, & 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation & 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA, 02148, USA 102 Gerhard Blickle, Tassilo S. Momm, Jochen Kramer, Jan Mierke, Yongmei Liu and Gerald R. Ferris Near, Baldwin, Rubin, & Bommer, 2005; Van Rooy & person–situation interactions, and different situations Viswesvaran, 2004). elicit different emotions (e.g., Harrison, 1986; Lazarus, Whereas Mayer and colleagues have taken an integra- 1991; Plutchik, 1980; Scherer, 1984). For example, the tive-model approach to EI (Mayer et al., 2008), which has experience of sadness is related to an individual’s per- resulted in the development of the now most widely ception of an irrevocable loss; fear is associated with the used ability-based measure, Mayer–Salovey–Caruso appraisal of the situation as being dangerous (Smith & Emotional Intelligence scale (i.e., MSCEIT – Mayer et al., Lazarus, 1993). A person’s representations of these 2002; Mayer et al., 2003), others have taken a specific- associations between situations and elicited emotions ability approach (Mayer et al.,2008)inanefforttounravel sometimes are based on innate mechanisms, whereas particular abilities entailed by individual emotional com- others are learned by socialization, observation of others petencies (e.g., Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, & in specific situations, and personal experience (Camras & Zeitlin, 1990; Matsumoto, LeRoux, Wilson-Cohn, Raro- Allison, 1989; Denham, 1998; Saarni, 1999). que, Kooken, Ekman, Yrizarry, Loewinger, Uchida, Yee, Appraisal of the events–emotion linkages not only Amo, & Goh, 2000; Nowicki & Carton, 1993). helps individuals understand an event and its conse- Instead of trying to tackle the global integration of quences, and thereby respond appropriately, but also emotional competencies, this research has focused on assists individuals to anticipate, recognize, understand, its specific components, such as the level of emotional and respond constructively to others’ emotional ex- awareness (e.g., Lane et al., 1990), the ability to periences evoked by situations (Lazarus, 1991). Related recognize facial expressions of emotions (e.g., Elfen- to such appraisal is the emotional knowledge that bein, 2006; Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002; Nowicki & equips individuals with the ability to accurately label Carton, 1993), and emotional appraisal and labeling and categorize emotional experiences (Clore, Ortony, (e.g., Innes-Ker & Niedenthal, 2002). Whereas devel- & Foss, 1987; Innes-Ker & Niedenthal, 2002). oped somewhat independently of the main stream EI Emotional reasoning skills represent valuable emo- research, this research has helped move the field tional competencies, particularly because individuals forward by providing enhanced understanding about frequently need to infer others’ emotional experiences the specific abilities associated with EI, as well as the based on this emotional appraisal process, rather than differential utilities in various tasks and contexts. Ana- through observing their emotional expressions. Emo- lyzing specific skills and abilities is also a necessary tional expressions do not always correspond with inner precondition for successfully training emotional abilities feelings (Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Ferna´ndez- (Elfenbein, 2006). The micro-skills approach to inter- Dols & Ruiz-Belda, 1997). Societal and organizational personal skills at work contends that the more specific display rules frequently require adults to control the skills and abilities are identified, the better will be the expression of their emotions toward others (Ekman, chance to change them (Hayes, 2002). 1972; Hochschild, 1983). Additionally, facial displays of The purpose of the present research is to test the emotions can be manipulated to serve social commu- construct and criterion-related validities of a newly nication and impression management purposes (Fri- introduced measure, namely, the Test of Emotional dlund, 1991; Goffman, 1959; Kraut & Johnston, 1979). Intelligence (i.e., TEMINT), which takes a specific-ability Therefore, knowledge about the association be- approach to assess a core element of emotional com- tween situations and emotions can represent an addi- petency; that is, the ability to reason with emotions. tional, and very helpful, way to infer the actual emo- The ability to reason with emotions, or what we call tional states of others, even when target persons do emotional reasoning skills, refers to the ability to employ not display their emotions. This awareness of others’ emotional knowledge to understand and analyze emo- emotional states allows individuals to develop an en- tions. Specifically, it includes such abilities as being able to hanced understanding of others’ motives and needs understand the links between emotion-eliciting situa- (Lazarus, 1991; Plutchik, 1980), based on which they tions and emotional reactions (i.e., emotional appraisal), can foster and maintain supportive relationships with to accurately label and categorize feelings, and to others. Another aspect of the importance of emotional describe one’s own and others’ emotional experiences reasoning skills is that a thorough knowledge about (i.e., emotional understanding) (Mayer et al., 2008; Mayer emotions helps people to predict emotional reactions & Salovey, 1997). Emotional reasoning skills have been of others in various situations. This knowledge helps identified as one of the key components of EI (Mayer et actors to better manage the emotions of self and others al., 2004, 2008; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). (e.g., Prati, Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, & Buckley, 2003). 1.1. Importance of emotional reasoning skills 1.2. TEMINT Many emotion theorists have argued that emotions are TEMINT was developed by Schmidt-Atzert and Bu¨hner experienced as a result of individuals’ appraisals of the (2002) to assess the ability of emotional reasoning and International Journal of Selection and Assessment & 2009 The Authors Volume 17 Number 1 March 2009 Journal compilation & 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Emotional Reasoning Skills 103 understanding. It is a performance-based test of EI that validity comparable to that found for MSCEIT (Mayer focuses specifically on emotional reasoning skills. In the et al., 2004). scale, situations experienced by various target persons It is the purpose of the present research to extend are described, for which test takers are asked to rate the validation of TEMINTas a specific-ability measure of the target persons’ possible emotional experiences. EI (i.e., a tool to assess the skill to correctly appraise, The situations were derived from a larger pool, from label, and understand