Sugarcane Pests and Their Management S 393 is dorsoventrally fl attened. Th e segments of the Kim KC (1987) Order Anoplura. pp 224–245 In: Stehr FW thorax are fused, and the thoracic spiracles located (ed) Immature insects, Vol. 1. Kendall/ Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa dorsally. Th e abdominal segments are distinct. Th e Kim KC, Pratt HD, and Stpjanovich CJ (1986) Th e sucking tarsi consist of only one segment, and there is only lice of North America. An illustrated manual for identi- one large claw on each tarsus. Cerci are absent. fi cation. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Metamorphosis is incomplete (hemimetabolous Park, Pennsylvania Price MA, Graham OH (1997) Chewing and sucking lice as development). parasites of mammals and birds. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin 1849, 309 pp Biology Sugarcane Rootstock Borer AU37 Sucking lice feed only on blood of mammals. Two Weevil (or three depending on how Pediculus humanus is treated) species aff ect humans, and about 12 Citrus Pests and Th e i r M a n a g e m e n t species aff ect domestic animals. Th e families tend to contain lice with very similar feeding habits. For example, the echinophthiriids feed on seals, Sugarcane Pests and Their sea lions, walruses and river otter; the ender- Management leinellids on squirrels; the haematopinids on ungulates such as pigs, cattle, horses and deer; the robert l. meagher 1, maria gallo 2 hoplopleurids on rodents and insectivores; the 1 USDA, Agricultural Research Service , linognathids on even-toed ungulates such as cat- Gainesville , FL , USA tle, sheep, goats, reindeer and deer, and on canids 2 University of Florida , Gainesville , FL , USA such as dogs, foxes and wolves; the pecaroecids on peccaries; the pediculids on the head and Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that evolved body of humans; the polyplacids on rodents and in Asia, most likely the South Pacifi c, probably the insectivores; and pthirids on gorillas and humans. island of New Guinea. It is composed of six species Th e eggs generally are cemented to the hairs of in the genus Saccharum L. Two species are wild, the host. Th ere are three nymphal instars in S. spontaneum and S. robustum , and four species nearly all species. are cultivated, S. offi cinarum , S. barberi , S. sinese , H u m a n L i c e and S. edule . All commercial sugarcane cultivars grown today are interspecifi c hybrids of Saccharum . References History of Sugarcane Arnett RH Jr (2000) American insects (second edition). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1003 pp Humans have cultivated sugarcane for at least the Durden LA, Musser GG (1994) Th e sucking lice (Insecta, last two millennia. Traders and migrating popu- Anoplura) of the world; a taxonomic checklist with lations hybridized and moved sugarcane from records of mammalian hosts and geographical distribu- tions.Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural southeastern Asia through India and China, History 218:1–90 through the Middle East and northern Africa, and Hopkins GHE (1949) Th e host-associations of the lice of into the Mediterranean. Europeans introduced mammals. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of sugarcane into the islands off the west coast of London 119:387–604 Kim KC, Ludwig HW (1978) Th e family classifi cation of Ano- Africa, and Columbus transported sugarcane from plura. Systematic Entomology 3:249–284 the Canary Islands to the Dominican Republic on AALPHA_S.inddLPHA_S.indd 339393 33/19/2008/19/2008 111:19:011:19:01 AAMM 394 S Sugarcane Pests and Their Management his second voyage in 1493. Sugarcane plantings and production spread during the next century into the other Caribbean islands and into Mexico, Central America, and South America. Sugarcane Production in the USA Sugarcane is grown commercially in four states in the USA, with over 900,000 acres harvested and a value of $754 million. Jesuit priests brought sugarcane into New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1751. Commercial-scale production in New Orleans began in 1795. Sugarcane is now grown on 435,000 acres in 24 parishes in southern Louisiana. Th e value of sugarcane production in Louisiana in 2005 was over $282 million. Sugarcane has been grown in many locations in Florida since the arrival of the French and Spanish. Commercial production today is centered south, east, and west of Lake Okeechobee in the southern part of the state. Th e sugarcane industry expanded in Florida during the 1960s and har- vested acres in 2006 reached 405,000. Th e value of Sugarcane Pests and Their Management, sugarcane production in Florida in 2005 was Figure 150 Sugarcane: a mature fi eld of sugarcane almost $357 million. ( above ), and recently planted (below ) . Sugarcane has been grown in several locations in Texas, from the Houston area south to the Rio Th e value of sugarcane production in Hawaii in Grande Valley (Fig. 150 ). Sugarcane was introduced 2005 was over $61 million. into the Rio Grande Valley in the early 1800s and by 1913 there were fi ve sugar mills. However, due to economic hardships, the last mill closed in 1921. Sugarcane Botany Research was conducted in the 1960s to determine the economic feasibility of growing the crop again Commercial sugarcane is vegetatively propagated and in 1973 a new sugar mill was completed in by planting seed pieces. Seed pieces are sections of south Texas. In 2006 the harvest was 46,500 acres. stalks that contain two or more nodes and inter- Th e value of sugarcane production in Texas in 2005 nodes. A node is where the leaf attaches to the was over $54 million. stalk but is also where the buds and root primor- Commercial sugarcane production started in dia are located. Aft er planting, a primary shoot Hawaii in 1837. However, because of increasing and two diff erent types of roots emerge from the land values and poor economic returns, produc- bud. Secondary shoots (tillering) emerge aft er the tion has declined steeply since the mid-1980s. primary shoot and each shoot develops their own Final sugarcane harvests occurred in 1996 on the root system. Above ground, the sugarcane leaf is islands of Oahu and Hawaii, and in 2006, there composed of a leaf sheath which surrounds the were 22,300 acres harvested on Kauai and Maui. stalk and a leaf blade. Sugarcane stores sucrose AALPHA_S.inddLPHA_S.indd 339494 33/19/2008/19/2008 111:19:011:19:01 AAMM Sugarcane Pests and Their Management S 395 in the stalks with decreasing concentrations as there was little evidence that they caused damage. you move up the stalk. Commercial production Lepidocyrtus cyaneus Tullberg, Onychiurus arma- involves the use of plant cane fi elds and ratoon or tus (Tullberg), Proisotoma minuta (Tullberg) and stubble fi elds. Stubble fi elds have been harvested Pseudosinella violentus (Folsom) are soil-dwelling, and the plants are allowed to regrow. Th e number whereas Salina beta Christiansen & Bellinger have of stubble crops depends on various factors such been found on the underside of leaves in Florida. as sugarcane variety, plant diseases, soil type, and soil insect pressure. Orthoptera Pest Descriptions In other regions of the world where sugarcane is grown, grasshoppers can be serious pests. In the Th is section includes the important mite and USA, several species of grasshoppers and fi eld insect species that attack sugarcane in the USA crickets may inhabit but usually don’t economi- (Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana and Texas). Sugarcane cally damage sugarcane. Th ese include the grass- insect pests are generally local insects that have hopper Schistocerca obscura (F.) and the fi eld adopted this plant as a host aft er its cultivation; crickets Gryllus assimilis (F.) and G. fi rmus Scud- however the movement of sugarcane has provided der. Two species of mole crickets, Scapteriscus new geographical areas for these adopted pests. borellii Giglio-Tos and S. vicinus Scudder, some- Many other insects inhabit sugarcane fi elds and times attack young sugarcane plants. act as predators or parasitoids. Th ese insects are not mentioned here. Pest management consider- ations are discussed at the end of this section. Isoptera Termites can be major pests of sugarcane, espe- A c a r i cially in parts of Australia, China, and India. In the USA, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki in Hawaii Although sugarcane may be infested by many and Reticulitermes fl avipes (Kollar) in Florida are diff erent mite species, few are economic pests. considered minor pests. Species within the genus Oligonychus (Tetrany- chidae) are occasional pests. Oligonychus stickneyi (McGregor) occurs in Hawaii and Florida and Psocoptera O. pratensis (Banks) is known to attack Florida sugarcane. A new mite, O. grypus Baker & Pritchard, Few species of Psocoptera have been identifi ed in was found infesting sugarcane in Florida green- sugarcane. Ectopsocopsis cryptomeriae (Enderlein) houses in 2002. Th is species, originally from Africa, was found in Florida and perhaps consumes sug- was previously found in Cuba and Brazil. Th e mite arcane rust fungus (Puccinia melanocephala H. & Steneotarsonemus bancroft i (Michael) (Tarsone- P. Syd). midae) is rarely found in Hawaii and Florida. H e m i p t e r a C o l l e m b o l a At least 11 families have been documented to During the 1950s in Louisiana, control measures cause plant injury to sugarcane. Injury is caused were taken against “small soil arthropods” although by feeding from xylem or phloem tissues or by AALPHA_S.inddLPHA_S.indd 339595 33/19/2008/19/2008 111:19:021:19:02 AAMM 396 S Sugarcane Pests and Their Management vectoring a plant pathogen which causes disease. (Harris), Hyperomyzus (= Nasonovia ) lactucae Results of these types of injury can cause eco- (L.), Hysteroneura setariae (Th omas), Rhopalosi- nomic damage through a reduction in sugar pro- phum maidis (Fitch), and Uroleucon (= Dactyno- duction or plant death.